Applying learning theories and instructional design models for effective instruction

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

An assessment after out-of-class instruction is an excellent way to evaluate student comprehension and facilitate mastery learning techniques.

“An assessment after the out-of-class instruction is an excellent way to evaluate student comprehension of a topic and facilitate the use of mastery learning techniques (22).”

• cites [22] 22. Kulik CC, Kulik JA, Bangert-Drowns RL. Effectiveness of mastery learning programs: a meta-analysis. Rev Educ Res 60: 265-299, 1990. sourcePartly supported

  In “Three strategies for optimizing intrinsic cognitive load” (page unavailable), the paper says that appropriate assessment can improve and facilitate learning. It does not specifically recommend assessment after out-of-class instruction, say that such an assessment evaluates topic comprehension, or connect it to mastery learning techniques. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The dual-channel principle indicates that there are two separate channels for processing verbal and pictorial information in working memory.

“The dual-channel principle indicates that there are two separate channels for processing verbal and pictorial information in working memory (35).”

• cites [35] 35. Paivio A. Mental Representations: a Dual-Coding Approach. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1986.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Germane cognitive load results from learner interactions with the appropriate instructional design that contributes to learning.

“Germane cognitive load results from learner interactions with the appropriate instructional design that contributes to learning.”

May combine two claims.

Five principles of instruction have been identified that promote learning: learners are engaged in solving real-world problems, existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge, new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner, new knowledge is applied by the learner, and new knowledge is integrated into the learner's world.

“Five principles of instruction have been identified (31) that promote learning: 1) learners are engaged in solving real-world problems, 2) existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge, 3) new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner, 4) new knowledge is applied by the learner, and 5) new knowledge is integrated into the learner's world.”

• cites [31] 31. Merrill MD. First principles of instruction. Educ Technol Res Dev 50: 43-59, 2002.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Gagné identified five domains of learning that affect the learning process: motor skills, verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and attitudes.

“Gagné (9) identified the five domains of learning that affect the learning process: 1) motor skills, 2) verbal information, 3) intellectual skills, 4) cognitive strategies, and 5) attitudes.”

• cites [9] 9. Gagne RM. The Conditions of Learning and Theory of Instruction. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1985.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

To achieve effective learning outcomes, the science of instruction and instructional design models are used to guide the development of instructional design strategies that elicit appropriate cognitive processes.

“To achieve effective learning outcomes, the science of instruction and instructional design models are used to guide the development of instructional design strategies that elicit appropriate cognitive processes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Both the ADDIE and Dick and Carey models use a behavioral approach in designing instruction.

“Both the ADDIE and Dick and Carey models use a behavioral approach in designing instruction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The limited capacity principle deals with the limitation of working memory to simultaneously process several pieces of information.

“The limited capacity principle (1, 32) deals with the limitation of working memory to simultaneously process several pieces of information.”

• cites [1] 1. Baddeley AD. Essentials of human memory. Hove: Psychology Press, 1999. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [32] 32. Miller GA. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychol Rev 63: 81, 1956.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The three primary learning theories differ in how learning is defined, which leads to different roles for learners and dictates different teaching methods and assessment strategies.

“The three theories differ in how learning is defined, which subsequently leads to different roles for the learners, and dictates that different teaching methods and assessment strategies are used.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The Dick and Carey model provides detailed step-by-step processes that could easily be followed.

“The Dick and Carey model provides detailed step-by-step processes that could easily be followed.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The general principle using cognitive load theory is to reduce extraneous cognitive load, manage intrinsic cognitive load, and promote germane load.

“The general principle using cognitive load theory is to reduce extraneous cognitive load, manage intrinsic cognitive load, and promote germane load.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

To avoid overwhelming students who lack foundational knowledge, provide them with relevant experience to be used as a foundation for the new knowledge.

“Simply put, to avoid overwhelming students who lack foundational knowledge, provide them with relevant experience to be used as a foundation for the new knowledge (17).”

• cites [17] 17. Khalil MK, Nelson LD, Kibble JD. The use of self-learning modules to facilitate learning of basic science concepts in an integrated medical curriculum. Anat Sci Educ 3: 219 -226, 2010. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Adult learning theory is defined by andragogy and self-directed learning principles.

“Adult learning theory is defined by andragogy and selfdirected learning principles (20,30).”

• cites [20] 20. Knowles M. Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers New York: The Adult Education Company; 1975.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [30] 30. Merriam SB, Caffarella RS, Baumgartner LM. Learning in Adulthood: a Comprehensive Guide. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1999.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Different instructional concepts require the selection of different instructional strategies and different methods of assessment.

“The main message in recognizing the different domains of learning is that different instructional concepts require the selection of different instructional strategies and different methods of assessment.”

May combine two claims.

Applying multimedia design principles to modify PowerPoint slides in medical education improved short-term retention, long-term retention, and knowledge transfer among medical students.

“The work of Issa and colleagues (12,13) presented evidence that applying multimedia design principles to modify PowerPoint (PPT) slides in medical education improved short-term retention, long-term retention, and knowledge transfer among medical students.”

• cites [12] 12. Issa N, Mayer RE, Schuller M, Wang E, Shapiro MB, DaRosa DA. Teaching for understanding in medical classrooms using multimedia design principles. Med Educ 47: 388 -396, 2013. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [13] 13. Issa N, Schuller M, Santacaterina S, Shapiro M, Wang E, Mayer RE, DaRosa DA. Applying multimedia design principles enhances learning in medical education. Med Educ 45: 818 -826, 2011. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Working memory is composed of two processors for auditory and visual information, respectively, with central or executive control, which processes three types of cognitive load: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane load.

“Working memory is composed of two processors for auditory and visual information, respectively, with central or executive control (2), which processes three types of cognitive load: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane load.”

• cites [2] 2. Baddeley AD, Hitch GJ. Working memory. Psychology Learn Motivat 8: 47-89, 1974. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The selection of only one teaching method to deliver all physiology sessions in the curriculum introduces unnecessary limitations that might negatively affect the learning outcomes.

“The selection of only one teaching method to deliver all physiology sessions in the curriculum introduces unnecessary limitations that might negatively affect the learning outcomes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Self-directed learning is a process in which the locus of control in learning lies with the adult learner.

“Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn (19,21), and self-directed learning is a process in which the locus of control in learning lies with the adult learner (20,30).”

• cites [20] 20. Knowles M. Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers New York: The Adult Education Company; 1975.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [30] 30. Merriam SB, Caffarella RS, Baumgartner LM. Learning in Adulthood: a Comprehensive Guide. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1999.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Working memory is very limited in duration and capacity.

“Working memory is very limited in duration and capacity (1,32).”

• cites [1] 1. Baddeley AD. Essentials of human memory. Hove: Psychology Press, 1999. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [32] 32. Miller GA. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychol Rev 63: 81, 1956.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn.

“Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn (19,21), and self-directed learning is a process in which the locus of control in learning lies with the adult learner (20,30).”

• cites [19] 19. Knowles MS (editor). Andragogy in Action: Applying Modern Principles of Adult Education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass, 1984.Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites [21] 21. Knowles M (editor). The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall/Cambridge, 1980.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The ADDIE model provides a systematic approach for designing and developing a learning experience.

“The ADDIE model (Fig. 2) provides systematic approach for designing and developing a learning experience.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Extraneous cognitive load is generated by suboptimal faulty presentation of instructional materials.

“Extraneous cognitive load is generated by suboptimal faulty presentation of instructional materials.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Design models translate the general principles of learning and instruction to provide a procedural framework for developing instructional materials and creating an environment for successful learning outcomes.

“In that respect, design models translate the general principles of learning and instruction to provide a procedural framework for developing instructional materials and creating an environment for successful learning outcomes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The outcome of each ADDIE phase informs the subsequent phase.

“The outcome of each ADDIE phase informs the subsequent phase.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Intrinsic cognitive load results from the number of interactive elements that the learner processes simultaneously in working memory.

“The intrinsic cognitive load results from the number of interactive elements that the learner processes simultaneously in working memory (i.e., the intellectual complexity of the concepts or instructional materials).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The active processing principle indicates that, for meaningful learning to occur, the processing of new selected and organized information in working memory requires activation and integration with prior knowledge stored in long-term memory.

“The active processing principle indicates that, for meaningful learning to occur, the processing of new selected and organized information in working memory requires activation and integration with prior knowledge stored in long-term memory (49).”

• cites [49] 49. Van Merriënboer JJ, Sweller J. Cognitive load theory in health profes- sional education: Design principles and strategies. Med Educ 44: 85-93, 2010. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

For effective instruction, problems should be relevant, interesting, and engaging.

“For effective instruction, problems should be relevant, interesting, and engaging (14), and there should be a progression from less complex to more complex problems (36,44).”

• cites [14] 14. Jonassen DH. Designing constructivist learning environments. Instruct Design Theories Models 2: 215-239, 1999.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The 4C/ID model is aligned with cognitivists learning approaches and is informed by cognitive load theory in designing instruction for learning complex tasks.

“The 4C/ID model is aligned with cognitivists learning approaches and is informed by cognitive load theory in designing instruction for learning complex tasks.”

• cites [45] 45. Van Merriënboer JJ. Training Complex Cognitive Skills: a Four-Com- ponent Instructional Design Model for Technical Training. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publication, 1997.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [46] 46. Van Merriënboer JJ, Clark RE, De Croock MB. Blueprints for com- plex learning: the 4C/ID-model. Educ Technol Res Dev 50: 39 -61, 2002. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For effective instruction, there should be a progression from less complex to more complex problems.

“For effective instruction, problems should be relevant, interesting, and engaging (14), and there should be a progression from less complex to more complex problems (36,44).”

• cites [36] 36. Reigeluth CM. The elaboration theory: guidance for scope and sequence decisions. Instruct Design Theories Models 2: 425-453, 1999.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [44] 44. Torre DM, Daley BJ, Sebastian JL, Elnicki DM. Overview of current learning theories for medical educators. Am J Med 119: 903-907, 2006. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Online quizzes with lecture recording make lecture videos more interactive.

“Online quizzes with the lecture recording make your lecture videos more interactive”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Just-in-time teaching provides feedback between out-of-class and in-class activities to address learning gaps.

“Just-in-time teaching provides feedback between out-of-class and in-class activities to address any learning gaps.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Self-regulation is important in developing skills for lifelong learning.

“the importance of selfregulation in developing skills for lifelong learning (7,51,52).”

• cites [7] 7. Ertmer PA, Newby TJ. The expert learner: strategic, self-regulated, and reflective. Instruct Sci 24: 1-24, 1996. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [51] 51. Young JQ, Van Merrienboer J, Durning S, Ten Cate O. Cognitive load theory: Implications for medical education: AMEE guide no. 86. Med Teach 36: 371-384, 2014. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [52] 52. Zimmerman BJ. Achieving academic excellence: a self-regulatory per- spective. Pursuit Excellence Educ 2002: 85-110, 2002.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The effectiveness of the systematic approach in designing instruction provides an empirical and replicable process for reliable assessment to continuously and empirically improve the developed learning experience.

“The effectiveness of the systematic approach in designing instruction provides an empirical and replicable process for reliable assessment to continuously and empirically improve the developed learning experience.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Formative evaluation is conducted during the design and development phases to improve instruction and learning materials and to ensure alignment with learning goals and objectives.

“Formative evaluation is conducted during the design and development phases to improve instruction and learning materials and to make sure they are aligned with the learning goal and objectives.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

If there is a need for more information and detailed explanations of what happens in each phase, the Dick and Carey model will be helpful.

“If there is a need for more information and detailed explanations of what happens in each phase, the Dick and Carey model will be helpful.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

If dealing with very complex materials, the 4CD/ID model is the best choice.

“However, if you are dealing with very complex materials, then the 4CD/ID model is your best choice.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The ADDIE model is the most popular model used for designing instruction.

“From the above-listed examples of instructional design models, the ADDIE model (Fig. 2) is the most popular model used for designing instruction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Evaluation can happen at any stage of the instructional design process.

“Evaluation can happen at any stage of the instructional design process.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Active lecture and self-directed computer-based instruction are more appropriate for teaching low cognitive level objectives, whereas problem-based learning, discussions, or case studies are appropriate methods for teaching high cognitive level objectives.

“Active lecture and self-directed computer-based instruction are more appropriate for teaching low cognitive level objectives, whereas problem-based learning, discussions, or case studies are appropriate methods for teaching high cognitive level objectives.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Liaison Committee on Medical Education requires provision of formative assessment in undergraduate medical education.

“the Liaison Committee on Medical Education requirement for provision of formative assessment in undergraduate medical education (23).”

• cites [23] 23. Liason Committee on Medical Education. Functions and Structure of a Medical School. Standards for Accreditation of Medical Education Pro- grams Leading to the M.D. Degree (online). http://lcme.org/publications/ [2 March 2016].Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Educational theory informs the design of instruction and instructional design models provide a guiding framework for developing effective, appealing, consistent, and reliable instruction.

“Educational theory informs the design of instruction and instructional design models provide guiding framework for the development of effective, appealing, consistent, and reliable instruction.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Conducting instructional and learner analysis helps faculty members determine the objectives and plays a major role in choosing the instructional strategies later on.

“This step will help faculty members determine the objectives and plays a major role in choosing the instructional strategies later on.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Students come to class with misconceptions or lacking the required entry behaviors.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Even students who may have met the prerequisites may not demonstrate adequate understanding of the foundational knowledge and may not be able to connect it to the content at hand.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The planning of an educational experience is far from simply PPT presentations by subject matter experts conveying disciplinary knowledge to novice students.

“The information presented makes it obvious that the planning of an educational experience is far from simply PPT presentations by subject matter experts conveying disciplinary knowledge to novice students.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Low cognitive level verbal information (remembering, understanding, applying) can be assessed by simple identification of an anatomic structure in a laboratory setting, whereas high mental cognitive intellectual skills (analyzing, evaluating, creating) can be assessed with problem sets, data analysis, or student presentations.

“Low cognitive level verbal information (remembering, understanding, and/or applying) could be assessed by simple identification of an anatomic structure in a laboratory setting, whereas high mental cognitive intellectual skills (analyzing, evaluating, and/or creating) could be assessed with problem sets, data analysis, or student presentations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The main difference between the Dick and Carey model and the ADDIE model is that the former includes all the essential phases described in the ADDIE model but with more elaboration.

“The main difference between the Dick and Carey model and ADDIE model is that the former includes all the essential phases described in the ADDIE model but with more elaboration.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Physiologists of different instructional design experience can use the ADDIE model to guide the development of their instructions.

“Physiologists of different instructional design experience can use the ADDIE model to guide the development of their instructions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

When faculty members think as instructional designers, they can deal with learning as a process, not as a set of content areas.

“When faculty members start to think as instructional designers, they will be able to deal with learning as a process, not as a set of content areas.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Omission of instructional design principles due to lack of instructional design competencies leads to unanticipated and unexplained learning outcomes.

“Omission of instructional design principles due to the lack of instructional design competencies leads to unanticipated and unexplained learning outcomes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Evaluation can include evaluation of students' attitudes and motivation and evaluating the efficiency of instruction, not limited to student performance or transfer of knowledge.

“Evaluation is not limited to the evaluation of the student performance or their transfer of knowledge; it could also include evaluation of students' attitudes and motivation and evaluating the efficiency of instruction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Summative evaluation is conducted at the end of instruction to ensure learners achieved learning objectives and the course achieved its goals.

“Summative evaluation is conducted at the end of the instruction to ensure that learners achieved the learning objectives and that the course achieved its goals.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The implementation phase provides an opportunity to evaluate what was planned during the design phase and to make sure everything performs as predicted.

“The implementation phase provides an opportunity to evaluate what was planned during the design phase and to make sure everything perform as predicted.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Motor skills are usually assessed using a checklist for presence or absence of the skill, and attitudes are assessed by a rating scale for degree.

“a motor skill is usually assessed using a checklist as to the presence or absence of the skill and attitude is assessed by a rating scale as to degree.”

• cites GagnéNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Creating specific and detailed learning objectives is a crucial part of the learning process because it lets learners know what is expected and important and lets faculty determine how to teach and evaluate.

“A crucial part of the learning process is creating specific and detailed learning objectives so that not only will the learners know what is expected of them and what is important but the faculty members can determine how they will teach the content as well as how they will evaluate and assess the instruction and the learners' success.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The 4C/ID model mainly deals with complex learning and has four components.

“The 4C/ID model (45, 46) mainly deals with complex learning and has four components.”

• cites [45] 45. Van Merriënboer JJ. Training Complex Cognitive Skills: a Four-Com- ponent Instructional Design Model for Technical Training. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publication, 1997.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [46] 46. Van Merriënboer JJ, Clark RE, De Croock MB. Blueprints for com- plex learning: the 4C/ID-model. Educ Technol Res Dev 50: 39 -61, 2002. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The ADDIE model is easy to follow and provides a simple structure.

“It is easy to follow and provides a simple structure.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The central component of formative assessment is providing feedback.

“The central component of formative assessment is providing feedback (37).”

• cites [37] 37. Rushton A. Formative assessment: a key to deep learning? Med Teach 27: 509 -513, 2005.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Without proper analysis, faculty members teaching physiology may not know which concepts are more challenging for learners and need more emphasis and which concepts are likely to be most easy for learners and thus can be glossed over.

“Without proper analysis, or only with the benefit of hindsight, faculty members teaching physiology may not know which concepts are more challenging for learners and need more emphasis and which concepts are likely to be most easy for learners and thus can be glossed over.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Students come to class with misconceptions or lacking the required entry behaviors.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Even students who may have met the prerequisites may not demonstrate adequate understanding of the foundational knowledge and may not be able to connect it to the content at hand.