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Low energy availability, not exercise stress, suppresses the diurnal rhythm of leptin in healthy young women
Open accessAbstract
Because the effect of exercise on leptin was not established, we controlled energy intake (I) and exercise energy expenditure (E) to distinguish the independent effects of energy availability (A = I − E) and exercise stress (everything associated with exercise except its energy cost) on the diurnal leptin rhythm in healthy young women. In random order, we set A = 45 and 10 kcal ⋅ kg lean body mass−1(LBM) ⋅ day−1 for 4 days during the early follicular phase of separate menstrual cycles in sedentary (S, n = 7) and exercising (X, n = 9: E = 30 kcal ⋅ kg LBM−1 ⋅ day−1) women. Low energy availability suppressed the 24-h mean ( P < 10−6) and amplitude ( P < 10−5), whereas exercise stress did not (both P> 0.2). Suppressions of the 24-h mean (−72 ± 3 vs. −53 ± 3%, P < 0.001) and amplitude (−85 ± 3 vs. −58 ± 6%, P < 0.001) were more extreme in S vs. X than previously reported effects on luteinizing hormone pulsatility and carbohydrate availability. Thus the diurnal rhythm of leptin depends on energy, or carbohydrate, availability, not intake, and exercise has no suppressive effect on the diurnal rhythm of leptin beyond the impact of its energy cost on energy availability.
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“Studies of LEA exposure have identified a somewhat more prominent effect of poor EI, rather than excessive EEE, in causing most of the physiological perturbations.127 160”
From 2023 international olympic committee's (IOC) consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (REDs) (2023) · cites this paper as [160]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“In this same study, leptin levels decreased by 50% in response to dietary restriction, and this difference is proportional to the reductions in CHO intake [45].”
From Considerations of Low Carbohydrate Availability (LCA) to Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) in Female Endurance Athletes: A Narrative Review (2023) · cites this paper as [45]
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“Furthermore, luteinizing hormone (LH) pulse frequency suggests that LH pulsatility may depend on CHO as opposed to EA, as evidenced by disruption to LH pulsatility at a level of CHO availability between 90–130 g/d of glucose [23,45].”
From Considerations of Low Carbohydrate Availability (LCA) to Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) in Female Endurance Athletes: A Narrative Review (2023) · cites this paper as [45]
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“it has been demonstrated that skeletal muscle alters its fuel source in response to LEA conditions, oxidizing less CHO and more fat during exercise [45].”
From Considerations of Low Carbohydrate Availability (LCA) to Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) in Female Endurance Athletes: A Narrative Review (2023) · cites this paper as [45]
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“In two conditions of identical LEA (with one achieved from dietary restriction and the other one achieved from exercise), CHO availability was 57% higher in women who reduced EA via exercise compared to reduced EA via dietary restriction [45].”
From Considerations of Low Carbohydrate Availability (LCA) to Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) in Female Endurance Athletes: A Narrative Review (2023) · cites this paper as [45]
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Ghanbari, A., & Hadi, N. (2013) · International Journal of Scientific Research in Knowledge · doi:10.12983/ijsrk-2013-p457-463
Effects of three weight reduction methods on serum leptin and metabolic parameters in obese females
Hojjati, Z. (2013) · Sport Sciences for Health · doi:10.1007/s11332-013-0156-7
“Several results of studies indicated that weight loss causes a decrease in serum leptin levels [18, 19, 26].”
BackgroundEffect of 12-Weeks' Swimming Exercise on Leptin and Plasma Lipids Profile in Cerebral Palsy
Lee, J.-K., & Zhang, S.-A. (2013) · Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial cooperation Society · doi:10.5762/kais.2013.14.7.3374
“몇몇 연구자 들은 순환하는 렙틴의 농도 감소는 일주기(circadian rhythm)에 큰 영향을 받거나 에너지 항상성의 불균형 (energy imbalance)에 의한 것이며[73], 증가의 원인은 혈 액의 농축에 의한 것이라고 주장한다[74].”
Menstrual Function and Dysfunction in the Female Athlete
Loucks, A. (2013) · doi:10.1201/b13743-11
Self-citationTraining, Leptin Receptors and SOCS3 in Human Muscle
Olmedillas, H., Guerra, B., Guadalupe-Grau, A., Santana, A., Fuentes, T., Dorado, C., Serrano-Sanchez, J., & Calbet, J. (2011) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/s-0030-1269892
The effect of exercise on the levels of circulating leptin in hyperlipidemic patients
El-Akkary, I., El-Ghazali, M., el-Sharkawi, A., Mohamed, B., & El-Bassiuni, U. (2007) · Bulletin of Egyptian Society for Physiological Sciences · doi:10.21608/besps.2007.37289
“On the other hand, the absence of significant change in serum leptin in short term exercise study may be due to the limited energy expenditure that reported to upregulate and downregulate leptin expression.((32)) Also, the reported diurnal rhythm of leptin concentration that depended on energy or carbohydrate availabi…”
BackgroundHoffmann, G., Gufler, V., & Schobersberger, W. (2007) · doi:10.1055/s-2007-986188
Reiches, M. W., & Ellison, P. T. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822652-0.00014-6 · Cited by 8
Dietary periodisation for health and performance in world-class endurance athletes
Heikura, I. A. (2020) · Research Bank (Australian Catholic University) · doi:10.26199/e8tq-dh06 · Cited by 1
“Third, low CHO intakes appear to suppress the reproductive and metabolic hormonal function in as little as five days, where the effects of low CHO availability may be a more powerful determinant of impairments as opposed to low EA per se (Hilton & Loucks, 2000; Spaulding et al., 1976).”
BackgroundNutritional Deficiencies and Impairment of Fertility in Athletes
Fernández, J. M. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-3402-7_19
“Along these lines, a study carried out to compare the independent effect of dietary restriction and exercise as metabolic stressors showed that dietary restriction generates significantly greater fluctuations in daily leptin secretion in young women [21].”
BackgroundExercise and Food Intake: What’s the Connection? What Are the Potential Sex Differences?
Morris, A., & Hagobian, T. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-55333-5_12
La consultation de la femme sportive
Adam, T. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-2-8178-0172-8_6
Herrick, J. E. (2009) · VCU Scholars Compass (Virginia Commonwealth University) · doi:10.25772/08zr-f665
Psychological Stress and Functional Amenorrhea
Norman, R. (2008) · Humana Press eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-59745-534-3_11
Tingley, S. P. (2005) · doi:10.14288/1.0077037
“" Hilton and Loucks (2004) further hypothesis that stress and energy availability are the same concept; in particular, energy availability is the clear and quantifiable measure of stress.”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Hilton, L. K., & Loucks, A. B.
- Affiliations
- Ohio University (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism
- Publisher
- American Physiological Society
- Published
- 2000-01-01
- Volume
- 278
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- E43-E49
- ISSN
- 0193-1849 (ISSN-L)
- 1522-1555
- OpenAlex
- W2152128405
- Cited by
- 214
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 4.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- American Heart Association
- National Institutes of Health (1r55hd029547-01)
- Directorate for Biological Sciences
- National Center for Research Resources (M01-RR-00034, M01RR000034)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (1R55-HD-29547-01)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Hypothalamic control of reproductive hormones
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Keywords
- leptin, diurnal cycle, energy availability, exercise stress, energy expenditure, energy intake, carbohydrate availability, luteinizing hormone pulsatility, menstrual cycle, follicular phase, young women
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Energy Intake, Circadian Rhythm, Energy Metabolism, Female, Humans, Reference Values, Exercise, Leptin
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