Cited by 904Family Dynamics and RelationshipsAttachment and Relationship DynamicsChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

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Theorizing the father–child relationship: mechanisms and developmental outcomes

Paquette, Daniel·2004·Human Development

DOI 10.1159/000078723

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Abstract

The aim of this article is to propose a theorization of the father-child relationship based on our current understanding of attachment, interactions between fathers and their young children, and human-specific adaptations. The comparison of mother-child and father-child interactions suggests that fathers play a particularly important role in the development of children’s openness to the world. Men seem to have a tendency to excite, surprise, and momentarily destabilize children; they also tend to encourage children to take risks, while at the same time ensuring the latter’s safety and security, thus permitting children to learn to be braver in unfamiliar situations, as well as to stand up for themselves. But this dynamic can only be effective in the context of an emotional bond between father and child; this relationship is termed the father-child activation relationship, in contrast to the mother-child attachment relationship aimed at calming and comforting children in times of stress. The activation relationship is developed primarily through physical play. It is postulated, in particular, that father-child rough-and-tumble play encourages obedience and the development of competition skills in children.

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10.2307%2F1131510 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.20.6.995 · DOI
10.2307%2F1132081 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.14.2.183 · DOI
10.2307%2F1129974 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0033-2909.126.1.55 · DOI
10.2307%2F1131010 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0033-2909.102.2.187 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.21.1.56 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.13.6.637 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0893-3200.2.2.164 · DOI
10.2307%2F1129839 · DOI · Paper page
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.15.3.256 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.23.5.705 · DOI · Paper page
10.1037%2F%2F0003-066X.44.2.329 · DOI · Paper page
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.24.6.802 · DOI · Paper page
10.2307%2F1132187 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.18.4.635 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0022-006X.64.1.8 · DOI
10.2307%2F1131191 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.20.3.492 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.28.4.700 · DOI

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Security in Father-child Relationship and Behavior Problems in Sexually Abused Children
Parent-Boursier, C., & Hébert, M. (2014) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-014-9653-y · Cited by 21
Coparenting Conflict and Academic Readiness in Children of Teen Mothers: Effortful Control as a Mediator
Jahromi, L. B., Zeiders, K. H., Updegraff, K. A., Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., & Bayless, S. D. (2017) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12290 · Cited by 21
“…the destabilizing and unpredictable nature of such interactions is thought to provide an ideal context in which children may practice and develop their self-regulatory skills, especially when coupled with sensitive and warm paternal behaviors (e.g., Paquette, 2004; Stevenson & Crnic, 2013).”
Beyond “Lots of Hugs and Kisses”: Expressions of Parental Love From Parents and Their Young Children in Two‐Parent, Financially Stable Families
Sabey, A. K., Rauer, A., Haselschwerdt, M. L., & Volling, B. L. (2017) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12327 · Cited by 29
Father–child activities and paternal attitudes in early child language development: the STEPS study
Lankinen, V., Lähteenmäki, M., Kaljonen, A., & Korpilahti, P. (2018) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2018.1557160 · Cited by 29
ANXIETY AND ATTACHMENT TO THE MOTHER IN PRESCHOOLERS RECEIVING PSYCHIATRIC CARE: THE FATHER–CHILD ACTIVATION RELATIONSHIP AS A PROTECTIVE FACTOR
Gaumon, S., Paquette, D., Cyr, C. P., Émond‐Nakamura, M., & St‐André, M. (2016) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.21571 · Cited by 30
Self-citation
Longitudinal and bidirectional relationships between parental rejection, peer attachment, and adolescent depression
Yu, X.-X., Zhang, Y., & Xin, S.-F. (2024) · Children and youth services review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2024.107601 · Cited by 21
The contributions of child–mother attachment, maternal parenting stress, and military status to the prediction of child behavior problems
Tupper, R., Bureau, J., Deneault, A., Dixon‐Luinenburg, T., & St‐Laurent, D. (2020) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.21854 · Cited by 20
COPARENTALIDADE NO CONTEXTO FAMILIAR DE CRIANÇAS COM TRANSTORNO DO ESPECTRO AUTISTA
Portes, J. R. M., & Vieira, M. L. (2020) · Psicologia em Estudo · doi:10.4025/psicolestud.v25i0.44897 · Cited by 20
“O modelo teórico denominado Relação de Ativação Pai-Criança, desenvolvido por Paquette (2004), defende que a função paterna está atrelada à abertura ao mundo para a criança, o que Psicol. estud., v. 25, e44897, 2020 ocorre principalmente por meio de jogos físicos que promovem o desenvolvimento…”
Background
The longitudinal association between children’s growth mindset in senior primary school and their parents’ growth mindset
Chen, J., & Liu, C. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1110944 · Cited by 29
“Mothers give more attention to the physical development of their children, while fathers exert an important influence on their children’s intelligence, emotional volition, socialization, and other aspects through interaction with their children (Steinberg and Silk, 2002; Paquette, 2004; Craig, 2006; Xu and Li, 2019).”
Background
Parenting Styles and Moral Disengagement in Young Adults: The Mediating Role of Attachment Experiences
Pentima, L. D., Toni, A., & Roazzi, A. (2023) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2023.2205451 · Cited by 29
“encouraging autonomy and performing tasks or taking risks to overcome obstacles; these behaviors could help develop one’s social-emotional skills (Majdandžić et al., 2014; Paquette, 2004).”
Background
A New Tool to Explore Children’s Social Competencies: The Preschool Competition Questionnaire
Paquette, D., Gagnon, M.-N., Bouchard, L., Bigras, M., & Schneider, B. H. (2013) · Child Development Research · doi:10.1155/2013/390256 · Cited by 20
“According to the activation relationship theory [54], fathers play a primary role in the development of competition skills (including aggression) in children.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citation
Measuring the Quality of Early Father–Child Rough and Tumble Play: Tools for Practice and Research
Anderson, S. S., StGeorge, J. M., & Roggman, L. A. (2019) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-019-09513-9 · Cited by 20
“How are RTPQ and PICCOLO-D associated with each other, quality of father–toddler toy play, and father report of frequency of physical play with child? Moderate associations between RTPQ and PICCOLO-D overall scores are expected due to both being grounded in the theoretical construct of sensitive challenging play (e.g.…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Early-life exposure to parental mental distress and adulthood depression among middle-aged and elderly Chinese
Zheng, X., Shangguan, S., Fang, Z., & Fang, X. (2021) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2021.100994 · Cited by 20
A Prospective Study on Father Involvement and Toddlers' Behavioral and Emotional Problems: Are Sons and Daughters Differentially Affected?
Keizer, R., Lucassen, N., Jaddoe, V. W. V., & Tiemeier, H. W. (2014) · Fathering A Journal of Theory Research and Practice about Men as Fathers · doi:10.3149/fth.1201.38 · Cited by 20
“Interestingly, although some scholars argue that fathers may mainly influence their children’s developmental outcomes via (physical) play (e.g., Paquette, 2004), our results revealed that fathers may help reduce behavioral problems in their children by taking on a larger share of childcare tasks…”
Background
Mothers' and Fathers' Internal State Language with Their Young Children: An Examination of Gender Differences During an Emotions Task
Roger, K. M., Rinaldi, C. M., & Howe, N. (2012) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.1762 · Cited by 20
Rough-and-Tumble Play and the Cooperation–Competition Dilemma: Evolutionary and Developmental Perspectives on the Development of Social Competence
Flanders, J. L., Herman, K. N., & Paquette, D. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199755059.003.0023 · Cited by 20
Self-citation
Paternal Anxiety in Relation to Toddler Anxiety: The Mediating Role of Maternal Behavior
Gibler, R. C., Kalomiris, A. E., & Kiel, E. J. (2017) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-017-0771-7 · Cited by 22
“Paternal play, which is characterized by spontaneity, unpredictability, and competitiveness, facilitates the child’s development of autonomy, exploration, and comfort in approaching novel situations [19, 29, 36].”
Background
The experiences of Dutch fathers on fathering children with disabilities: ‘Hey, that is a father and his daughter, that is it’
Schippers, A., Berkelaar, M., Bakker, M., & Hove, G. V. (2020) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/jir.12711 · Cited by 19
Parent–child interactions as predictors of coparenting: A longitudinal study of family subsystems
Bernier, A., Cyr, C. P., Matte‐Gagné, C., & Tarabulsy, G. M. (2021) · Journal of Family Studies · doi:10.1080/13229400.2021.1908909 · Cited by 19
“according to theory (Cabrera & Roggman, 2017; Paquette, 2004) and empirical evidence (Schoppe-Sullivan et al.”
BackgroundMethod
Still Mother after All These Years: Infants Still Prefer Mothers over Fathers (If They Have the Choice)
Zimmermann, P., Mühling, L. E., Lichtenstein, L., & Iwanski, A. (2022) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci11020051 · Cited by 25
Behavioral inhibition, negative parenting, and social withdrawal: Longitudinal associations with loneliness during early, middle, and late adolescence
Verhagen, M., Derks, M., Roelofs, K., & Maciejewski, D. F. (2022) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13874 · Cited by 25
Proximate and ultimate mechanisms of human father-child rough-and-tumble play
Paquette, D., & StGeorge, J. M. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105151 · Cited by 25
“Paquette (2004) proposed the hypothesis that RTP is a means by which the father can establish his dominance or authority with his child and thus motivate the child’s compliance.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis: Paternal Anxiety and the Emotional and Behavioral Outcomes in Their Offspring
Zecchinato, F., Ahmadzadeh, Y. I., Kreppner, J., & Lawrence, P. J. (2024) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2024.04.005 · Cited by 19
Seeing but Not Feeling: Machiavellian Traits in Relation to Physiological Empathetic Responding and Life Experiences
Massey-Abernathy, A. R., & Byrd‐Craven, J. (2016) · Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology · doi:10.1007/s40750-016-0041-0 · Cited by 19
“Variability in fathering has also been shown to be related to emotion regulation (Pellegrini 1988) and social cognition (Paquette 2004).”
Background
Early Caregiving: Perceived Parental Relations and Current Social Support
Shifren, K. (2008) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-008-9047-6 · Cited by 19
“The kinds of interactions that fathers have with their children have been repeatedly shown to be more active and playful ( Paquette 2004 ).”
BackgroundInfluential
Home educational contexts of Asian American children: Disentangling the effects of structural and cultural factors
Kim, Y. (2020) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.10.002 · Cited by 18
Gender Differences in the Intergenerational Transmission Process of Educational Aspirations in Late Childhood
Guo, X., He, S., Du, Z., Bi, T., & Luo, L. (2020) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-020-01206-1 · Cited by 18
“The first position argues that fathers are generally the head of the family and are thus more responsible for the socialization of their children (Lamb 2004; Paquette 2004).”
Background
Longitudinal Associations Between Mother–Child and Father–Child Closeness and Conflict From Middle Childhood to Adolescence
Xie, M., Nuttall, A. K., Johnson, D. J., & Qin, D. B. (2021) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.12531 · Cited by 24
A Qualitative Study of Men’s Experience of Being a Father in Families with Childhood Disability
Vatne, T. M., Dale, S. S., Haukeland, Y. B., & Fjermestad, K. W. (2022) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-022-09847-8 · Cited by 18
“In a theoretical paper about the father-child relation, Paquette (2004) described how fathers tend to excite, surprise, and momentarily destabilize children during interaction.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Mechanisms of maternal and paternal phubbing on adolescents’ self-control: The attenuating effect of having a sibling
Xie, X., Tang, X., Wu, S., & Shen, X. (2023) · Mobile Media & Communication · doi:10.1177/20501579231158225 · Cited by 18
“Typically, mothers represent caring and warmth, while fathers represent authority and discipline (Paquette, 2004).”
Background
Fathers' Autonomy Support and Social Competence of Sons and Daughters
CORWYN, R. F., & Bradley, R. H. (2016) · Merrill-palmer Quarterly · doi:10.13110/merrpalmquar1982.62.4.0359 · Cited by 18
“, NICHD ECCRN, 2004), paternal sensitive support for autonomy may play a bigger role than maternal sensitive support for autonomy in facilitating the processes by which children become more agentic and learn to adjust to the demands of the world outside the immediate family, especially as regards social competence (Fl…”
BackgroundInfluential
Using monozygotic twin differences to examine the relationship between parental affection and personality: a life history account
Dunkel, C. S., Nedelec, J. L., & van der Linden, D. (2017) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2017.09.004 · Cited by 18
Testing the father–child activation relationship theory: A replication study with low-income unmarried parents.
Lee, J. Y., Volling, B. L., & Lee, S. J. (2020) · Psychology of Men & Masculinity · doi:10.1037/men0000301 · Cited by 18
“Recall that Paquette (2004) argued that mothers provide comfort and support in the context of a secure mother–infant attachment relationship (i.e., supportive parenting), whereas fathers encourage exploration and social competence in the context of the father–infant activation relationship.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Impact of social support for mothers as caregivers of cerebral palsy children in Japan
Moriwaki, M., Yuasa, H., Kakehashi, M., Suzuki, H., & Kobayashi, Y. (2021) · Journal of Pediatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2021.10.010 · Cited by 18
Predictors of childhood trajectories of overt and indirect aggression: An interdisciplinary approach
Aimé, C., Paquette, D., Déry, M., & Verlaan, P. (2018) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21759 · Cited by 13
Self-citation
Le père, une roue du carrosse familial à ne pas oublier ! État des recherches québécoises et canadiennes sur la paternité
Dubeau, D., Clément, M., & Chamberland, C. (2006) · Enfances Familles Générations · doi:10.7202/012534ar · Cited by 18
Not Just Father Involvement! Contemporary Perspectives on Fathering and Father-Child Relationships
Volling, B. L., & Bornstein, M. H. (2025) · Parenting · doi:10.1080/15295192.2025.2555648 · Cited by 20
Absent Father Timing and its Impact on Adolescent and Adult Criminal Behavior
TenEyck, M. F., Knox, K. N., & Sayed, S. A. E. (2021) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-021-09640-x · Cited by 23
“Research examining the impact of parenting on child development have found that the role fathers play in development is different than that of mothers, and the influence of the father differs across developmental stages (Meuwissen & Carlson, 2015; Paquette, 2004; Yogman et al., 2016).”
Background
Parental sensitivity and intrusiveness in gay-, lesbian-, and heterosexual-parent families with infants conceived using artificial reproductive techniques: Do parents’ gender and caregiver role matter?
Ellis‐Davies, K., Gelderen, L. V. R., Winstanley, A., Helmerhorst, K. O. W., Rubio, B., Vecho, O., Lamb, M. E., & Bos, H. (2021) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.09.002 · Cited by 17
Ebb and Flow in Parent-Child Interactions: Shifts from Early through Middle Childhood
Bradley, R. H., Pennar, A. L., & Iida, M. (2015) · Parenting · doi:10.1080/15295192.2015.1065120 · Cited by 20
“Most obviously, they may vary somewhat for mothers and fathers, given that mothers and fathers tend to play somewhat different caregiving roles regarding children (Paquette, 2004).”
BackgroundInfluential
Do physical activity and screen time mediate the association between European fathers’ and their children’s weight status? Cross-sectional data from the Feel4Diabetes-study
on behalf of the Feel4Diabetes-study group, Latomme, J., Huys, N., Cardon, G., Morgan, P. J., Lateva, M. P., Chakarova, N. Y., Kivelä, J., Lindström, J., Androutsos, O., et al. (2019) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-019-0864-8 · Cited by 18
“catching, throwing) due to their increased opportunity and encouragement to learn and practice these skills throughout life [47, 48].”
Background

Authors: Paquette, D.
Affiliations: Université de Montréal (CA)
Corresponding author: Paquette, Daniel
ORCID: Paquette, Daniel
Venue: Human Development
Publisher: S. Karger AG
Published: 2004
Volume: 47
Issue: 4
Pages: 193-219
ISSN: 0018-716X (ISSN-L)
1423-0054
DOI: 10.1159/000078723
OpenAlex: W2030787081
Cited by: 904
References: 136
Citations by year: 2026: 60 · 2025: 70 · 2024: 50 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 81 · 2020: 66 · 2019: 54 · 2018: 44 · 2017: 47 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 41 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 50
FWCI: 18.04
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.karger.com/Services/SiteLicenses (vor)
www.karger.com/Services/SiteLicenses (tdm)
Locations: Human Development (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: father-child relationship, attachment, father-child interaction, maternal attachment, rough-and-tumble play, physical play, child development, openness to the world, risk-taking, affective bonds, obedience

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Theorizing the father–child relationship: mechanisms and developmental outcomes

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