Cited by 904Family Dynamics and RelationshipsAttachment and Relationship DynamicsChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

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Theorizing the father–child relationship: mechanisms and developmental outcomes

Paquette, Daniel·2004·Human Development

DOI 10.1159/000078723

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Abstract

The aim of this article is to propose a theorization of the father-child relationship based on our current understanding of attachment, interactions between fathers and their young children, and human-specific adaptations. The comparison of mother-child and father-child interactions suggests that fathers play a particularly important role in the development of children’s openness to the world. Men seem to have a tendency to excite, surprise, and momentarily destabilize children; they also tend to encourage children to take risks, while at the same time ensuring the latter’s safety and security, thus permitting children to learn to be braver in unfamiliar situations, as well as to stand up for themselves. But this dynamic can only be effective in the context of an emotional bond between father and child; this relationship is termed the father-child activation relationship, in contrast to the mother-child attachment relationship aimed at calming and comforting children in times of stress. The activation relationship is developed primarily through physical play. It is postulated, in particular, that father-child rough-and-tumble play encourages obedience and the development of competition skills in children.

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10.2307%2F1131510 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.20.6.995 · DOI
10.2307%2F1132081 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.14.2.183 · DOI
10.2307%2F1129974 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0033-2909.126.1.55 · DOI
10.2307%2F1131010 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0033-2909.102.2.187 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.21.1.56 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.13.6.637 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0893-3200.2.2.164 · DOI
10.2307%2F1129839 · DOI · Paper page
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.15.3.256 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.23.5.705 · DOI · Paper page
10.1037%2F%2F0003-066X.44.2.329 · DOI · Paper page
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.24.6.802 · DOI · Paper page
10.2307%2F1132187 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.18.4.635 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0022-006X.64.1.8 · DOI
10.2307%2F1131191 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.20.3.492 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.28.4.700 · DOI

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Background
THE MECHANISM BEHIND MOTHER’S NEGATIVE PARENTING STYLE ON COLLEGE STUDENTS’ EMOTIONAL HEALTH
Jing, W. A. N. G., & Fang, S. (2024) · PSYCHOLOGIA · doi:10.2117/psysoc.2022-a207 · Cited by 4
Patterns of father responsiveness to child distress and children’s socioemotional outcomes
Platts, C. R., Sturge‐Apple, M. L., & Davies, P. T. (2025) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579425000161 · Cited by 1
Parental psychological control and preschooler's behavioral problems and pre-academic performance in China: The mediating role of executive function
Xing, X., Zhao, X., Zhang, M., Jiao, M., & Liu, L. (2025) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102694 · Cited by 2
Health and Psychological Predictors of Antibiotic Use in Infancy and Fathers’ Role
Fuertes, M., Almeida, R., & Dionísio, F. (2025) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe15050066 · Cited by 3
“Moreover, maternal and paternal interactive behaviors tend to differ, with research frequently describing fathers as more play-oriented partners, while mothers are more often associated with affective communication and caregiving routines (Faria et al., 2014; Lamb & Lewis, 2010; Paquette, 2004).”
The Role of Parent–Child Attachment in the Association Between Loneliness and Self-Harm Thoughts and Behaviors in Daily Life
Janssens, J. J., Lafit, G., Šimsa, B., Bosmans, G., Achterhof, R., Hagemann, N., Myin‐Germeys, I., & Kirtley, O. J. (2025) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026251345451 · Cited by 3
The Structure of Challenging Parenting Behavior in Norwegian Parents to Children in Middle Childhood (7–10 years)
Kleppe, R., Sando, O. J., Majdandžić, M., & Sandseter, E. B. H. (2025) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440251360080 · Cited by 1
“It also aligns with reviews highlighting that teasing and rough-and-tumble play are key components of activation parenting (Feldman & Shaw, 2021), a style more commonly associated with fathers (Freeman & Robinson, 2022; Paquette, 2004; Stgeorge & Freeman, 2017).”
Parental autonomy support effects on children’s school adjustment: The longitudinal mediating effect of executive function
Hu, X., Li, Z., Shi, Y., & Xing, X. (2025) · Journal of Psychology in Africa · doi:10.32604/jpa.2025.070062 · Cited by 1
ADAPTATION OF THE FATHER SELF-EFFICACY SCALE TO TURKISH CULTURE AND EXAMINATION OF ITS PSYCHOMETRIC PROPERTIES
Bilaloğlu, R. G., Nur, İ., Gürel, S., Arnas, Y. A., & Kurtoğlu, M. B. (2025) · İnönü Üniversitesi Sağlık Hizmetleri Meslek Yüksek Okulu Dergisi · doi:10.33715/inonusaglik.1685634 · Cited by 1
Fathers' Childcare Involvement Across the First Four Years: The Role of Duration and Share of Parental Leave
Klode, A., Fentz, H. N., Nielsen, S. A., & Trillingsgaard, T. (2025) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.70030 · Cited by 1
Parental involvement profiles and their association with children’s early development in Taiwan: a three-year longitudinal study
Lyu, B., Huang, H., Hu, B., Gao, X., Chou, Y.-J., & Chang, C.-J. (2026) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2026.109114 · Cited by 1
The impact of father–son relationship on suicidal ideation in Chinese gay and bisexual men: the mediating role of masculinity and self-esteem
Huang, Y., Liang, J., Huang, G., Liu, J., Zhu, D., Liu, J., & Hu, J. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03709-6 · Cited by 1
The bidirectional longitudinal relationship between parental attachment and gratitude among Chinese children
Qin, G., & Wang, D. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-026-09082-w · Cited by 1
“Paquette ( 2004 ) proposed the concept of the " activation relationship “, in which fathers foster trust and closeness by encouraging exploration and risk-taking.”
Timing matters: a prospective investigation of father absence and pubertal timing in girls and boys
Drazan, T. M., & Chaku, N. (2026) · Biology of Sex Differences · doi:10.1186/s13293-026-00868-y · Cited by 1
“Although (when available) father reports of their own presence were consistent with mother reports, father presence alone does not fully capture a father’s impact on their children and non-residential fathers may still maintain a strong, positive presence in the child’s life [73].”
Parental Roles in Language Intervention: A Systematic Review.
Amaya-Medina, D.-R., Contreras, R. E. S., & González-Fernández, D. (2026) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2026_ajslp-25-00222
Depression in left-behind children: a network analysis and chained mediation of attachment and emotion regulation
Li, K., Xu, T., Shang, L., Chen, Y., Dou, W., Li, B., & Yang, Z. (2026) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-026-04848-0 · Cited by 1
“Maternal attachment fosters children’s basic sense of security and emotional stability through soothing and caregiving [49], whereas paternal attachment is primarily associated with encouraging exploration, competitiveness, and the development of self-regulation [50].”
Activation parenting in mothers and fathers: A systematic review and meta‐analysis
Laquerre, D., Gagné, A., Beaulieu, L., Gariépy, M., Feldman, J. S., Bureau, J., & Deneault, A. (2026) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.70101 · Cited by 1
“…functions within the parent-child dyad, with mothers more often engaging in nurturing and sensitivity-oriented interactions, and fathers more often engaging in activation-oriented interactions involving stimulation and risk regulation (Paquette, 2004a, 2004b; Paquette & Puentes-Neuman, 2024).”
Influential
Reciprocal relations between parent–adolescent closeness and adolescent depressive symptoms across the pre-to-post COVID-19 pandemic
Weng, X., Fang, H., An, Y., Xu, J., Gao, M. M., & Han, Z. R. (2026) · Child Development · doi:10.1093/chidev/aacag114 · Cited by 1
An Evolutionary Perspective on Parenting and Parenting Stress
Bögels, S. M., & Restifo, K. (2013) · Mindfulness in behavioral health · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7406-7_2 · Cited by 1
Activative Fathering, Children's Self-Regulation, and Social Skills
Stevenson, M. M. (2014) · Cited by 1
Father-Child Play Behaviors and Child Emotion Regulation
Hagman, A. M. (2021) · Digital Commons - USU (Utah State University) · doi:10.26076/c860-6770 · Cited by 2
La formation parentale au masculin pour l’inclusion des pères dans les programmes d’intervention précoce
Breton, S., Puentes‐Neuman, G., & Paquette, D. (2009) · Revue des sciences de l éducation · doi:10.7202/029930ar · Cited by 1
“Par ailleurs, une étude explique que le père joue un rôle important dans la gestion de l’agressivité chez le garçon (Paquette, 2004a).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Gene-Environment Interplay and Prosocial Behavior An Analysis of Parent-Child Relationships
Meek, S. E. (2013) · Cited by 1
A Comparison of the Parental Attitudes Between Fathersand Mothers of Childrenwith Language Development Delay
Ahn, J., & 박화란 (2012) · Journal of speech-language & hearing disorders · doi:10.15724/jslhd.2012.21.4.009 · Cited by 1
The Impact of Ego-state and Parent-adolescent Communication Style on School Mal-adjustment Behaviors for the Middle School Students
Suh, Y.-J., & 이동훈 (2011) · Korea Journal of Counseling · doi:10.15703/kjc.12.6.201112.2123 · Cited by 1
Mind the dad–A review on the biopsychosocial influences of drug abuse on father-infant interaction
Lee, J. J. N., Cataldo, I., Coppola, A., Corazza, O., & Esposito, G. (2021) · Emerging Trends in Drugs Addictions and Health · doi:10.1016/j.etdah.2021.100015 · Cited by 1
Paternal Influence on the Developmental Pathways of Maternal Parenting Stress, Home Learning Stimulation, and Children’s Social Skills in the U.S. and Korea: A Moderated Mediation Model
Kim, J., & Lee, J. (2021) · Journal of Comparative Family Studies · doi:10.3138/jcfs.52.3.03 · Cited by 1
YETİŞKİNLER İÇİN BABAYA BAĞLANMA ÖLÇEĞİNİN TÜRKÇEYE UYARLAMASI
OLCAY, F. E. Y., & Soyer, M. K. (2022) · the Journal of Academic Social Sciences · doi:10.29228/asos.57834 · Cited by 1
Including fathers in work with vulnerable families
Fletcher, R. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107282155.005 · Cited by 1
The impact of child anxiety and overinvolvement on peer relations: a moderation model
Wilton, E. P., Gladstone, T. R., Lahoud, A. A., Clark, S. D. B., Fredrickson, C. G., & Flessner, C. A. (2022) · Children s Health Care · doi:10.1080/02739615.2022.2117179 · Cited by 1
“These disparate roles have led researchers to suggest that a father’s behaviors promote autonomy and a child’s openness to the world (Majdandžić et al., 2018; Paquette, 2004).”
Background
The Mediating Role of Hope in the Relationship between Fathers Support and STEM Efficacy among Adolescents in Malaysia
Sze, A. W. K., Hassan, N. C., Jaafar, W. M. W., & Ahmad, N. A. (2023) · International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences · doi:10.6007/ijarbss/v13-i2/16175 · Cited by 2
“Ravindran et al (2020) revealed that the fathers’ autonomy support tends to encourage children to take risks, and expose them to challenges, but at the same time, restricts offering protection (Paquette, 2004).”
Temperament, Parenting, and Child Anxiety
Aaron, E. M., Baumgartner, N. M., & Kiel, E. J. (2023) · Advances in Psychiatry and Behavioral Health · doi:10.1016/j.ypsc.2023.03.017 · Cited by 3
Research on Parenting Styles and Children’s Psychological Development
龙, 柯. (2023) · Advances in Social Sciences · doi:10.12677/ass.2023.124263 · Cited by 1
The psychological impact of an unreliable father on his son and on the family: Therapeutic interventions with the child and within the family system
Caprilli, S. (2022) · Psychoanalysis Self and Context · doi:10.1080/24720038.2022.2103141 · Cited by 1
“The father brings security in exploration (Grossmann et al., 2008) and contributes to building up a vitalizing relationship by means of physical play (Paquette, 2004).”
Background
Investigation of a Donor Primary School Student’s Perspective on the Concept of Family: a Narrative Study
ÖZDEN, G., & GÜLLÜHAN, N. Ü. (2025) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-025-10216-y · Cited by 1
“…the parent not assuming the primary care - giving role, particularly the father, in supporting the child’s emotional development and providing a secure environment through a “supportive function” role (Hofferth, 2003 ; Lamb, 2010 ; McLanahan et al., 2013 ; Paquette, 2004 ; Wilson & Prior, 2011 ).”

Authors: Paquette, D.
Affiliations: Université de Montréal (CA)
Corresponding author: Paquette, Daniel
ORCID: Paquette, Daniel
Venue: Human Development
Publisher: S. Karger AG
Published: 2004
Volume: 47
Issue: 4
Pages: 193-219
ISSN: 0018-716X (ISSN-L)
1423-0054
DOI: 10.1159/000078723
OpenAlex: W2030787081
Cited by: 904
References: 136
Citations by year: 2026: 60 · 2025: 70 · 2024: 50 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 81 · 2020: 66 · 2019: 54 · 2018: 44 · 2017: 47 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 41 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 50
FWCI: 18.04
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.karger.com/Services/SiteLicenses (vor)
www.karger.com/Services/SiteLicenses (tdm)
Locations: Human Development (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: father-child relationship, attachment, father-child interaction, maternal attachment, rough-and-tumble play, physical play, child development, openness to the world, risk-taking, affective bonds, obedience

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Theorizing the father–child relationship: mechanisms and developmental outcomes

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