Cited by 904Family Dynamics and RelationshipsAttachment and Relationship DynamicsChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

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Theorizing the father–child relationship: mechanisms and developmental outcomes

Paquette, Daniel·2004·Human Development

DOI 10.1159/000078723

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Abstract

The aim of this article is to propose a theorization of the father-child relationship based on our current understanding of attachment, interactions between fathers and their young children, and human-specific adaptations. The comparison of mother-child and father-child interactions suggests that fathers play a particularly important role in the development of children’s openness to the world. Men seem to have a tendency to excite, surprise, and momentarily destabilize children; they also tend to encourage children to take risks, while at the same time ensuring the latter’s safety and security, thus permitting children to learn to be braver in unfamiliar situations, as well as to stand up for themselves. But this dynamic can only be effective in the context of an emotional bond between father and child; this relationship is termed the father-child activation relationship, in contrast to the mother-child attachment relationship aimed at calming and comforting children in times of stress. The activation relationship is developed primarily through physical play. It is postulated, in particular, that father-child rough-and-tumble play encourages obedience and the development of competition skills in children.

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10.2307%2F1131510 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.20.6.995 · DOI
10.2307%2F1132081 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.14.2.183 · DOI
10.2307%2F1129974 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0033-2909.126.1.55 · DOI
10.2307%2F1131010 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0033-2909.102.2.187 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.21.1.56 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.13.6.637 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0893-3200.2.2.164 · DOI
10.2307%2F1129839 · DOI · Paper page
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.15.3.256 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.23.5.705 · DOI · Paper page
10.1037%2F%2F0003-066X.44.2.329 · DOI · Paper page
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.24.6.802 · DOI · Paper page
10.2307%2F1132187 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.18.4.635 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0022-006X.64.1.8 · DOI
10.2307%2F1131191 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.20.3.492 · DOI
10.1037%2F%2F0012-1649.28.4.700 · DOI

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Peng, C., Liu, Y., Zhang, Z., Wang, S., Hu, Z., Li, Z., & Cheng, W. (2026) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2026.107363
Parent–Child Sex Composition Impacts Long‐Term Outcomes in Family‐Based Behavioural Treatment
Neuwald, N. V., Temple, J. L., Li, O., & Epstein, L. H. (2026) · Pediatric Obesity · doi:10.1111/ijpo.70130
“Specifically, father-daughter relationships, while less frequent in daily contact, may be characterised by more novel, positively valenced interactions, potentially creating a communication dynamic that supports success in FBT [39, 40].”
Change in preschoolers’ PTSD symptom severity predicted by caregivers’ emotional flooding and aggression
Her, H., & Marshall, A. D. (2026) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579426101709
“Building on attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969), Paquette (2004) proposed that, in general, mothers and fathers often serve distinct roles for their children.”
Scent of a father: Paternal body odors boost interbrain synchrony
Endevelt–Shapira, Y., Schwartz, L., & Feldman, R. (2026) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aed6110
“…and sensory cues push infants toward greater exploration and mastery ( 5 – 8 ), elicit higher positive arousal, and stimulate the acquisition of attentive and cognitive skills ( 9 – 11 ), whereas maternal sensory cues promote safety, familiarity, and the downregulation of arousal ( 7 , 12 ).”
Paternal involvement and children's approaches to learning: the mediating role of maternal parental stress and maternal parental burnout
Cai, L., Wang, H., Zhang, Q., Chen, K., & Yang, Y. (2026) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2026.2706138
“Fathers frequently engage children in problem-solving activities, constructive play, and exploratory scenarios that require strategic adjustment and tolerance of uncertainty (McBride & Mills, 1993; Paquette, 2004).”
Maternal and paternal behaviors during play interactions and children’s early language achievements
Kashy‐Rosenbaum, G., & Orr, E. (2026) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2026.106607
Inventory of Father and Mother Involvement: Expansion and Adaptation in Assessing Parenting
de Santis, L., & Noronha, A. P. P. (2026) · Revista Colombiana de Psicología · doi:10.15446/rcp.v35n2.114693
“The items developed in this step of the study were constructed based on information from specific literature on the dimensions “Providing” (Christiansen & Palkovitz, 2001) and “Openness to the world” (Bueno et al., 2018; Paquette, 2004).”
Influential
Intergenerational transmission of effortful control and reactive control: Evidence from a twin study
Liu, Q., Davis, M. C., Doane, L. D., & Lemery‐Chalfant, K. (2026) · Child Development · doi:10.1093/chidev/aacag132
Parental Self Efficacy and Perceived Parenting Attitudes as Predictors of Parenting Styles in Preschool Parents
Turhan, C., & İdrisoğlu, Ö. (2026) · Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi · doi:10.24106/kefdergi.1905343
A Three-wave Longitudinal Study on Parental Autonomy Support : An Intermediary Model of Father Presence and basic Psychological Needs in Primary School StudentsPreprint
Wang, Z., Luangon, D., Ge, Z., & Zhou, Y. (2026) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-10355462/v1
Profiles of Parent–Child Relationship Quality and Emotional Adjustment in Chinese Children: Role of Unsociability
Haidabieke, A., Kong, X., Zhang, Z., Zhang, W., Zhou, T., & Ding, X. (2026) · Child & Family Social Work · doi:10.1111/cfs.70261
Children's negative emotions and parent emotion socialization during parent–child and sibling interactions in naturalistic settings
Prather, K., Brown, G. L., & Ravindran, N. (2026) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.70226
Father–Child Play: What Types of Play Do Fathers Engage in With Their Daughters and Sons?
Kamrak, H., Erol, M. C., & Erol, A. (2026) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.70343
Recalled Paternal Acceptance-Rejection and Attachment Insecurity: Evidence from Spain, Italy, and Ecuador
Perzolli, S., Bernardi, A., Bizzego, A., Senese, V. P., Cárcamo, R. A., Angel-Echeverry, A., Díaz-Mosquera, E., Iandolo, G., & Esposito, G. (2026) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2026.2717333
Network Analysis of Characteristics of Parent–Child and Peer Attachment in Left‐Behind Children
Xu, T., Li, Z., Zhao, Y., Li, B., & Yang, Z. (2026) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.70267
The independent protective role of paternal involvement in the association between maternal containment and depressive symptoms in children aged 3-6
Yıldırım, B. O., Özkan, E., & Algedik, P. (2026) · Journal of Medicine and Palliative Care · doi:10.47582/jompac.1938253
Impact of paternity leave on maternal postpartum recovery and mental health: policy frameworks in India and Kerala
Prakash, A., & Balan, S. (2026) · International Journal of Community Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.18203/2394-6040.ijcmph20263241
From parental childhood physical maltreatment to preschool children's physical and relational aggression in China: A dyadic analysis of parental corporal punishment as a mediator
Ding, W., Mao, J., Wu, C., & Liu, S. (2026) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2026.108318
Associations Between Paternal Sensitivity and Cognitive and Behavioural Outcomes in Preterm Children: An Individual Participant Data Meta‐Analysis
Gueron‐Sela, N., Treyvaud, K., Atzaba‐Poria, N., Cheong, J. L. Y., Spittle, A. J., Yatziv, T., Anderson, P. J., & Jaekel, J. (2026) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.70338
“…characterized by high-energy physical play, managed risk, cognitive novelty and problem-focused dialogue, which can work together to strengthen children's gross-motor coordination and the cognitive systems that underlie exploration, problem-solving and eventually academic success (Paquette 2004).”
Gender and pedestrian injury risk in childhood: gender biases, crossing beliefs and behaviors
Barlow, G., & Morrongiello, B. A. (2026) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsag065
Parent-Youth Acculturation Gaps and Well-Being of Immigrant Youth and Families in the UK: Differential Roles of Mothers and Fathers
Geeraert, N., & Sun, Q. (2026) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/00220221261490892
Feasibility, Development and Dissemination of a Father Focused Parenting Intervention, DadPlay
StGeorge, J. M., Freeman, E. E., & Campbell, L. (2026) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-026-03367-1
“…to literature on early childhood behaviour (Perry et al., 2018 ; Williams & Ber - thelsen, 2017), father-child relationships (Jessee & Adam-sons, 2018 ; Paquette, 2004), father engagement (Lechowicz et al., 2019) and rough-and-tumble play (Flanders et al., 2013 ; StGeorge & Fletcher, 2020).”
Smiling in time: the interactive development of infant smiling with mothers, fathers and strangers
Salvadori, E., Messinger, D. S., Cobo-Lewis, A. B., Ertuğrul, I. Ö., & Colonnesi, C. (2026) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2025.0142
Perspectives évolutionnistes de la compétition et de la coopération chez les enfants d’âge préscolaire
Paquette, D. (2026) · Revue de psychoéducation · doi:10.7202/1128950ar
Self-citation
Finding one’s own path: parental differential support, personality, and sibling differentiation tendencies
Gözü, H., & Rieder, J. K. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-026-10153-1
“These patterns suggest that paternal support may function as a signal of status or validation (Paquette, 2004), which may either encourage proactive differentiation or reduce defensive differentia - tion depending on individuals’ dispositional tendencies.”
Father–Child Attachment Relationships
DENEAULT, A., & BUREAU, J. (2026) · doi:10.1002/9781394366156.ch8
Child Emotional Reactivity Differentiates Vulnerability to Paternal Punitive/Minimizing Emotion Socialization
Choi, J., & Brooker, R. J. (2026) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.70106
The mediating role of early maladaptive schemas in the relationship between perceived parental attitudes and cognitive flexibility in adolescents
Tanrıverdi, İ., & Ayhan, C. H. (2026) · Klinik Psikoloji Dergisi · doi:10.57127/kpd.26024438.1885136
The Concept Of Masculinity: A Neuropsychoanalytic View
Clarici, A., & Castelpietra, E. (2026) · Psychoanalytic Inquiry · doi:10.1080/07351690.2026.2751900
La mentalisation triadique et son lien avec les interactions familiales entre mère, père, enfant : résultats préliminaires
Osso, C. (2011) · Archive ouverte UNIGE (University of Geneva)

Authors: Paquette, D.
Affiliations: Université de Montréal (CA)
Corresponding author: Paquette, Daniel
ORCID: Paquette, Daniel
Venue: Human Development
Publisher: S. Karger AG
Published: 2004
Volume: 47
Issue: 4
Pages: 193-219
ISSN: 0018-716X (ISSN-L)
1423-0054
DOI: 10.1159/000078723
OpenAlex: W2030787081
Cited by: 904
References: 136
Citations by year: 2026: 60 · 2025: 70 · 2024: 50 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 81 · 2020: 66 · 2019: 54 · 2018: 44 · 2017: 47 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 41 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 50
FWCI: 18.04
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.karger.com/Services/SiteLicenses (vor)
www.karger.com/Services/SiteLicenses (tdm)
Locations: Human Development (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords: father-child relationship, attachment, father-child interaction, maternal attachment, rough-and-tumble play, physical play, child development, openness to the world, risk-taking, affective bonds, obedience

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Theorizing the father–child relationship: mechanisms and developmental outcomes

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