Life-cycle assessment and temporal distributions of emissions: developing a fleet-based analysis
Abstract
Summary: Although the product‐centered focus of life‐cycle assessment has been one of its strengths, this analytical perspective embeds assumptions that may conflict with the realities of environmental problems. This article demonstrates, through a series of mathematical derivations, that all the products in use, rather than a single product, frequently should be the appropriate unit of analysis. Such a “fleet‐centered” approach supplies a richer perspective on the comparative emissions burdens generated by alternative products, and it eliminates certain simplifying assumptions imposed upon the analysis by a product‐centered approach. A sample numerical case, examining the comparative emissions of steel‐intensive and aluminum‐intensive automobiles, is presented to contrast the results of the two approaches. The fleet‐centered analysis shows that the “crossover time” (i.e., the time required before the fuel economy benefits of the lighter aluminum vehicle offset the energy intensity of the processes used to manufacture the aluminum in the first place) can be dramatically longer than that predicted by a product‐centered life‐cycle assessment. The fleet‐centered perspective explicitly introduces the notion of time as a critical element of comparative life‐cycle assessments and raises important questions about the role of the analyst in selecting the appropriate time horizon for analysis. Moreover, with the introduction of time as an appropriate dimension to life‐cycle assessment, the influences of effects distributed over time can be more naturally and consistently treated.
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A fleet-level dynamic model paired with life cycle impact assessment can address the three shortcomings of single-vehicle LCA.
“Dynamic models of the entire vehicle fleet, combined with life cycle impact assessment, are an alternative to single-product LCAs.This dynamic fleet approach can overcome the three limitations. [23]3][24][25]”
From Global Carbon Benefits of Material Substitution in Passenger Cars until 2050 and the Impact on the Steel and Aluminum Industries (2014) · cites this paper as [25]
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Pryshlakivsky, J., & Searcy, C. (2016) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.12.004 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
An Efficient Concept to Integrate Traffic Activity Dynamics into Fleet LCAs
Mamarikas, S., Samaras, Z. C., & Ntziachristos, L. D. (2025) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en18195075 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Application of the Sequential Interindustry Model (SIM) to Life Cycle Assessment
Levine, S. H., Gloria, T. P., & Romanoff, E. (2009) · Eco-efficiency in industry and science · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-5737-3_12 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A Dynamical Life Cycle Inventory of Steel, Aluminium, and Composite Car Bodies-in-White
Stasinopoulos, P., & Compston, P. (2013) · Lecture notes in mobility · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-01884-3_11 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Advancing Social Life Cycle Assessment: A Novel Approach to Uncertainty Analysis
Cassuriaga, B., Santos, A., & Carvalho, A. (2026) · Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research · doi:10.1021/acs.iecr.5c03058 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A comprehensive LCA CO2 emission inventory for passenger car fleet in Europe and future trends
Mamarikas, S., Bouter, A., Karageorgiou, T., Krause, J., Fontaras, G., & Samaras, Z. C. (2026) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2026.148784 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Causal Knowledge Network Integration for Life Cycle Assessment
Kim, Y. S., Choi, K., & Kim, K.-Y. J. (2011) · National Conference on Artificial Intelligence · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A FLEET-BASED LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES IN PORTUGAL
Garcia, R., Freire, F. M. C. S., Luís, R., & Santos, R. (2013) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Contribution to the development of a dynamic Life Cycle Assessment method
Shimako, A. H. (2017) · doi:10.70675/0b11ef78z4080z48b7za371z9e44333da971 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Pinsonnault, A. (2013) · PolyPublie (École Polytechnique de Montréal)
Laurenti, R., Lazarevic, D., Poulikidou, S., Montrucchio, V., Bistagnino, L., & Björn (2014)
A System Dynamics Approach to Calculating the Energy Consumed in Car Component Production
Stasinopoulos, P., Compston, P., & Jones, H. M. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-10798-6_33
- Authors
- Field, F., Kirchain, R., & Clark, J.
- Affiliations
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Field, Frank
- ORCID
- Kirchain, Randolph
- Venue
- Journal of Industrial Ecology
- Published
- 2000-04
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 71-91
- ISSN
- 1088-1980 (ISSN-L)
- 1530-9290
- OpenAlex
- W2018689081
- Cited by
- 110
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 4.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Industrial Ecology (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Carnegie Mellon University
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Sustainability and Ecological Systems Analysis
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Accounting › Life Cycle Costing Analysis
- Keywords
- time horizon, crossover time, vehicle fuel economy
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