CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 120

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 3 of the 3 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

The Origins of Fossil Capital: From Water to Steam in the British Cotton Industry

Malm, Andreas·2013·Historical Materialism
DOI 10.1163/1569206x-12341279
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

The process commonly referred to as business-as-usual has given rise to dangerous climate change, but its social history remains strangely unexplored. A key moment in its onset was the transition to steam power as a source of rotary motion in commodity production, in Britain and, first of all, in its cotton industry. This article tries to approach the dynamics of the fossil economy by examining the causes of the transition from water to steam in the British cotton industry in the second quarter of the nineteenth century. Common perceptions of the shift as driven by scarcity are refuted, and it is shown that the choice of steam was motivated by a rather different concern: power over labour. Turning away from standard interpretations of the role of energy in the industrial revolution, this article opens a dialogue with Marx on matters of carbon and outlines a theory of fossil capital, better suited for understanding the drivers of business-as-usual as it continues to this day.

Overview

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1163/1569206x-12341279

Cites

3 of 3 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Andreas Malm (2013) set out a new 'general formula' of 'fossil capital': increasing quantities of CO2 are a necessary part of capital accumulation, materially indispensable for value creation; fossil capital is self-expanding value passing through the metamorphosis of fossil fuels into CO2.

    “Andreas Malm (2013) has elaborated it amidst considerable theoretical magic works, setting out a new”

    From Theories of Political Ecology: Monopoly Capital Against People and the Planet (2023) · cites this paper as Malm, 2013

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 162

  1. Alderson, 1834, An Essay on the Nature and Application of Steam
  2. Allen, 2009, The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective, 10.1017/CBO9780511816680 · DOI
  3. Altvater, 1994, ‘Ecological and Economic Modalities of Time and Space’
  4. Altvater, 2006, ‘The Social and Natural Environment of Fossil Capitalism’
  5. Andrews, 2008, Killing for Coal: America’s Deadliest Labor War
  6. Arago, 1839, Historical Eloge of James Watt
  7. Arrhenius, 1896, ‘On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground’, Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, 5, 41, 237, 10.1080/14786449608620846 · DOI
  8. Ashmore, 1969, The Industrial Archaeology of Lancashire
  9. Ashworth, 1951, ‘British Industrial Villages in the Nineteenth Century’, The Economic History Review, 3, 3, 378, 10.2307/2599995 · DOI
  10. Aspin, 2003, The Water Spinners
  11. Aston, 1987, The Brenner Debate: Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-industrial Europe
  12. Atwood, 1928, ‘Localization of the Cotton Industry in Lancashire, England’, Economic Geography, 4, 2, 187, 10.2307/140277 · DOI
  13. Babbage, 1835 [1833], On the Economy of Manufactures
  14. Balderston, 2010, ‘The Economics of Abundance: Coal and Cotton in Lancashire and the World’, The Economic History Review, 63, 3, 569, 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00453.x · DOI
  15. Barca, 2011, ‘Energy, Property, and the Industrial Revolution Narrative’, Ecological Economics, 70, 7, 1309, 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.03.012 · DOI
  16. Bartrip, 1985, ‘Success or Failure? The Prosecution of the Early Factory Acts’, The Economic History Review, 38, 3, 423, 10.2307/2596996 · DOI
  17. Blauwhof, 2012, ‘Overcoming Accumulation: Is a Capitalist Steady-State Economy Possible?’, Ecological Economics, 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.03.012 · DOI
  18. Boden, 2011, Global, Regional, and National Fossil-Fuel CO 2Emissions
  19. Boyson, 1970, The Ashworth Cotton Enterprise: The Rise and Fall of a Family Firm, 1818–1880
  20. Brenner, 1986, ‘The Social Basis of Economic Development’
  21. Brenner, 2007, ‘Property and Progress: Where Adam Smith Went Wrong’, 10.5871/bacad/9780197264034.003.0004 · DOI
  22. Briggs, 1982, The Power of Steam: An Illustrated History of the World’s Steam Age
  23. Burkett, 1999, Marx and Nature: A Red and Green Perspective, 10.1057/9780312299651 · DOI
  24. Burkett, 2006, Marxism and Ecological Economics: Toward a Red and Green Political Economy, Historical Materialism, 10.1163/9789047408567 · DOI
  25. Buxton, 1978, The Economic Development of the British Coal Industry: From Industrial Revolution to the Present Day
  26. Bythell, 1969, The Handloom Weavers: A Study in the English Cotton Industry during the Industrial Revolution, 10.1017/CBO9780511895999 · DOI
  27. Cameron, 1985, ‘A New View of European Industrialization’, The Economic History Review, 38, 1, 1, 10.2307/2596641 · DOI
  28. Castree, 2009, ‘The Spatio-temporality of Capitalism’, Time and Society, 18, 1, 26, 10.1177/0961463X08099942 · DOI
  29. Catling, 1970, The Spinning Mule
  30. Chaloner, 1954–5, ‘Robert Owen, Peter Drinkwater and the Early Factory System in Manchester, 1788–1800’, Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 37, 87, 10.7227/BJRL.37.1.6 · DOI
  31. Chapman, 1969, ‘The Peels in the Early English Cotton Industry’, Business History, 11, 2, 235
  32. Chapman, 1971, ‘The Cost of Power in the Industrial Revolution in Britain: The Case of the Textile Industry’, Midlands History, 1, 2, 1, 10.1179/mdh.1971.1.2.1 · DOI
  33. Chapman, 1972, The Cotton Industry in the Industrial Revolution, 10.1007/978-1-349-01515-3 · DOI
  34. Chapman, 1992 [1967], The Early Factory Masters: The Transition to the Factory System in the Midland Textile Industry
  35. Church, 1986, The History of the British Coal Industry. Volume 3: 1830–1913: Victorian Pre-eminence
  36. Clark, 2005, ‘Carbon Metabolism: Global Capitalism, Climate Change, and the Biospheric Rift’, Theory and Society, 34, 4, 391, 10.1007/s11186-005-1993-4 · DOI
  37. Clery, 2010, ‘Sending African Sunlight to Europe, Special Delivery’, Science, 329, 5993, 782, 10.1126/science.329.5993.782 · DOI
  38. Cohen, 1981, ‘Managers and Machinery: An Analysis of the Rise of Factory Production’, Australian Economic Papers, 20, 36, 24, 10.1111/j.1467-8454.1981.tb00274.x · DOI
  39. Cooke, 2003, Stanley: From Arkwright Village to Commuter Suburb: 1784–2003
  40. Cooke, 2010, The Rise and Fall of the Scottish Cotton Industry, 1778–1914: ‘The Secret Spring’
  41. Cooke Taylor, 1843, The Hand Book of Silk, Cotton, and Woollen Manufactures
  42. Crafts, 2004, ‘Steam as a General Purpose Technology: A Growth Accounting Perspective’, The Economic Journal, 114, 495, 338, 10.1111/j.1468-0297.2003.00200.x · DOI
  43. Crutzen, 2003, ‘How Long Have We Been in the Anthropocene Era?’, Climatic Change, 61, 3, 251, 10.1023/B:CLIM.0000004708.74871.62 · DOI · Paper page
  44. Dearne, 1995, ‘The Use of Coal in Roman Britain’, The Antiquaries Journal, 75, 71, 10.1017/S000358150007298X · DOI
  45. Debeir, 1991 [1986], In the Servitude of Power: Energy and Civilisation through the Ages
  46. Engels, 2009 [1845], The Condition of the Working Class in England
  47. Fairbairn, 1861, ‘Speech at the British Association for the Advancement of Science Meeting in Manchester’
  48. Fairbairn, 1864 [1863], Treatise on Mills and Millwork, Part I., On the Principles of Mechanism and on Prime Movers
  49. Farey, 1827, A Treatise on the Steam Engine, Historical, Practical, and Descriptive
  50. Fitton, 1989, The Arkwrights: Spinners of Fortune
  51. Fitton, 1958, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 1758–1830
  52. Flinn, 1984, The History of the British Coal Industry, Volume 2, 1700–1830: The Industrial Revolution
  53. Foster, 2011, ‘Capitalism and Degrowth: An Impossibility Theorem’, Monthly Review, 62, 8, 26, 10.14452/MR-062-08-2011-01_2 · DOI
  54. Foster, 2010, The Ecological Rift: Capitalism’s War on the Earth
  55. Foulkes, 1964, ‘The Cotton Spinning Factories of Flintshire, 1777–1866’, The Journal of the Flintshire Historical Society, 21, 91
  56. Gatrell, 1977, ‘Labour, Power, and the Size of Firms in Lancashire Cotton in the Second Quarter of the Nineteenth Century’, The Economic History Review, 30, 1, 95
  57. Gordon, 1983, ‘Cost and Use of Water Power during Industrialization in New England and Great Britain: A Geological Interpretation’, The Economic History Review, 36, 2, 240, 10.2307/2595922 · DOI
  58. Gray, 1996, The Factory Question and Industrial England, 1830–1860
  59. Greenberg, 1982, ‘Reassessing the Power Patterns of the Industrial Revolution: An Anglo-American Comparison’, The American Historical Review, 87, 5, 1237, 10.2307/1856912 · DOI
  60. Harvey, 1999 [1982], The Limits to Capital
  61. Hatcher, 1993, The History of the British Coal Industry, Volume 1: Before 1700, 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198282822.001.0001 · DOI
  62. Hills, 1970, Power in the Industrial Revolution
  63. Hills, 1989, Power from Steam: A History of the Stationary Steam Engine, 10.1017/CBO9780511565038 · DOI
  64. Hills, 2006, ‘The Importance of Steam Power during the Nineteenth Century’, Transactions of the Newcomen Society, 76, 2, 175, 10.1179/037201806X119796 · DOI
  65. Horner, 1834, The Factories Regulation Act Explained, With Some Remarks on Its Origin, Nature, and Tendency
  66. Howe, 1984, The Cotton Masters, 1830–1860
  67. Huber, 2009, ‘Energizing Historical Materialism: Fossil Fuels, Space and the Capitalist Mode of Production’, Geoforum, 40, 1, 105, 10.1016/j.geoforum.2008.08.004 · DOI
  68. Humphrey, 1979, ‘Economic Growth and Energy Consumption in the UK, 1700–1975’, Energy Policy, 7, 1, 29, 10.1016/0301-4215(79)90049-1 · DOI
  69. Hyde, 1977, Technological Change and the Development of the British Iron Industry, 1700–1870
  70. Ingle, 1997, Yorkshire Cotton: The Yorkshire Cotton Industry, 1780–1835
  71. Ingold, 1995, ‘Work, Time and Industry’, Time and Society, 4, 1, 5, 10.1177/0961463X95004001001 · DOI
  72. Jacobson,, 2011a, ‘Providing All Energy with Wind, Water, and Solar Power, Part I: Technologies, Energy Resources, Quantities and Areas of Infrastructure, and Materials’, Energy Policy, 39, 3, 1154, 10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.040 · DOI
  73. Jacobson,, 2011b, ‘Providing All Energy with Wind, Water, and Solar Power, Part II: Reliability, System and Transmission Costs, and Policies’, Energy Policy, 39, 3, 1170
  74. Jevons, 1866, The Coal Question: An Inquiry Concerning the Progress of the Nation, and the Probable Exhaustion of our Coal-Mines
  75. Joffe, 2011, ‘The Root Cause of Economic Growth under Capitalism’, Cambridge Journal of Economics, 10.1093/cje/beq054 · DOI
  76. Jones, 2010, ‘A Landscape of Energy Abundance: Anthracite Coal Canals and the Roots of American Fossil Fuel Dependence, 1820–1860’, Environmental History, 15, 3, 449, 10.1093/envhis/emq057 · DOI
  77. Kanefsky, 1979, The Diffusion of Power Technology in British Industry, 1760–1870
  78. Kennedy, 1818, Observations on the Rise and Progress of the Cotton Trade in Great Britain
  79. Kerr, 2010, ‘Do We Have the Energy for the Next Transition?’, Science, 329, 5993, 780, 10.1126/science.329.5993.780 · DOI
  80. Kirby, 1975, The Voice of the People: John Doherty, 1798–1854. Trade Unionist, Radical and Factory Reformer
  81. Lee, 1972, A Cotton Enterprise, 1795–1840: A History of the M’Connel & Kennedy Fine Cotton Spinners
  82. Lefebvre, 1991 [1974], The Production of Space
  83. Leggett, 2012, ‘The Implication for Climate Change and Peak Fossil Fuel of the Continuation of the Current Trend in Wind and Solar Energy Production’, Energy Policy, 41, 610, 10.1016/j.enpol.2011.11.022 · DOI
  84. Lloyd-Jones, 1998, British Industrial Capitalism since the Industrial Revolution
  85. Lord, 1965 [1923], Capital and Steam Power, 1750–1800
  86. Malanima, 2001, ‘The Energy Basis for Early Modern Growth, 1650–1820’
  87. Malanima, 2006, ‘Energy Crisis and Growth 1650–1850: The European Deviation in a Comparative Perspective’, Journal of Global History, 1, 1, 101, 10.1017/S1740022806000064 · DOI
  88. Malm, 2012a, ‘Steam: Nineteenth-Century Mechanization and the Power of Capital’
  89. Malm, 2012b, ‘China as Chimney of the World: The Fossil Capital Hypothesis’, Organization & Environment, 25, 2, 146, 10.1177/1086026612449338 · DOI
  90. Malm, 2013, ‘Fleeing the Flowing Commons: Robert Thom, Water Reservoir Schemes, and the Shift to Steam-Power in Early Nineteenth Century Britain’, Environmental History
  91. Mandel, 1990 [1976], ‘Introduction’, Marx 1990
  92. Marshall, 1957, ‘Early Applications of Steam Power: The Cotton Mills of the Upper Leen’, Transactions of the Thoroton Society, 60, 34
  93. Marvel, 1977, ‘Factory Regulation: A Reinterpretation of Early English Experience’, Journal of Law and Economics, 20, 2, 379, 10.1086/466906 · DOI
  94. Marx, 1990 [1867], Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Volume I
  95. Marx, 1991a [1894], Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Volume III
  96. Marx, 1991b, ‘Marx’s Economic Manuscripts of 1861–63’, 33
  97. Marx, 1992 [1885], Capital: A Critique of Political Economy. Volume II
  98. Marx, 1993 [1939/41], Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy
  99. Mayumi, 1991, ‘Temporary Emancipation from Land: From the Industrial Revolution to the Present Time’, Ecological Economics, 4, 1, 35, 10.1016/0921-8009(91)90004-X · DOI
  100. McCulloch, 1833, ‘Babbage on Machinery and Manufactures’, Edinburgh Review, LVI, 313
  101. McCulloch, 1835, ‘Philosophy of Manufactures’, Edinburgh Review, LXI, 453
  102. McCulloch, 1837, A Statistical Account of the British Empire: Exhibiting Its Extent, Physical Capacities, Population, Industry, Civil and Religious Institutions
  103. Meiksins Wood, 1995, Democracy against Capitalism: Renewing Historical Materialism, 10.1017/CBO9780511558344 · DOI
  104. Meiksins Wood, 2002, The Origin of Capitalism: A Longer View
  105. Mitchell, 1984, Economic Development of the British Coal Industry, 1800–1914
  106. Mitchell, 2002, Rule of Experts: Egypt, Techno-Politics, Modernity, 10.1525/9780520928251 · DOI · Paper page
  107. Mitchell, 2011, Carbon Democracy: Political Power in the Age of Oil
  108. Musson, 1976, ‘Industrial Motive Power in the United Kingdom, 1800–70’, The Economic History Review, 29, 3, 415
  109. Musson, 1959, ‘The Early Growth of Steam Power’, The Economic History Review, 11, 3, 418, 10.2307/2591464 · DOI
  110. Nardinelli, 1985, ‘The Successful Prosecution of the Factory Acts: A Suggested Explanation’, The Economic History Review, 38, 3, 428, 10.2307/2596997 · DOI
  111. Nef, 1966 [1932], The Rise of the British Coal Industry, I–II
  112. Nuvolari, 2004, The Making of Steam Power Technology: A Study of Technical Change during the British Industrial Revolution
  113. Owens, 2011, Quarry Bank Mill and Styal Estate
  114. Peacock, 1984, ‘The Successful Prosecution of the Factory Acts, 1833–55’, The Economic History Review, 37, 2, 197, 10.2307/2596881 · DOI
  115. Peacock, 1985, ‘Factory Act Prosecutions: A Hidden Consensus?’, The Economic History Review, 38, 3, 431, 10.2307/2596998 · DOI
  116. Pollard, 1964, ‘The Factory Village in the Industrial Revolution’, The English Historical Review, 79, 312, 513, 10.1093/ehr/LXXIX.CCCXII.513 · DOI
  117. Pollard, 1968 [1965], The Genesis of Modern Management: A Study of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain
  118. Pollard, 1980, ‘A New Estimate of British Coal Production, 1750–1850’, The Economic History Review, 33, 2, 212
  119. Pomeranz, 2000, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy, 10.1515/9781400823499 · DOI
  120. Postone, 1993, Time, Labor, and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx’s Critical Theory, 10.1017/CBO9780511570926 · DOI
  121. Redford, 1976 [1926], Labour Migration in England, 1800–1850
  122. Reynolds, 1983, Stronger than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel, 10.56021/9780801825545 · DOI
  123. Rodgers, 1960, ‘The Lancashire Cotton Industry in 1840’, Transactions and Papers of the Institute of British Geographers, 28, 135, 10.2307/621119 · DOI
  124. Rose, 1986, The Gregs of Quarry Bank Mill: The Rise and Decline of a Family Firm, 1750–1914
  125. Rosenberg, 1994, Exploring the Black Box: Technology, Economics, and History, 10.1017/CBO9780511582554 · DOI
  126. Samuel, 1977, ‘Workshop of the World: Steam Power and Hand Technology in Mid-Victorian Britain’, History Workshop Journal, 3, 1, 6, 10.1093/hwj/3.1.6 · DOI
  127. Satterthwaite, 2009, ‘The Implications of Population Growth and Urbanization for Climate Change’, Environment and Urbanization, 21, 2, 545, 10.1177/0956247809344361 · DOI
  128. Schaffer, 1994, ‘Babbage’s Intelligence: Calculating Engines and the Factory System’, Critical Inquiry, 21, 1, 203, 10.1086/448746 · DOI
  129. Shaw, 1984, Water Power in Scotland, 1550–1870
  130. Sieferle, 2001 [1982], The Subterranean Forest: Energy Systems and the Industrial Revolution
  131. Smil, 2008, Energy in Nature and Society: General Energetics of Complex Systems
  132. Smith, 2008 [1984], Uneven Development: Nature, Capital, and the Production of Space, 10.1353/book11443 · DOI · Paper page
  133. Storper, 1989, The Capitalist Imperative: Territory, Technology, and Industrial Growth
  134. Stuart, 1824, A Descriptive History of the Steam Engine
  135. Tann, 1970, The Development of the Factory
  136. Tann, 1973a, ‘Richard Arkwright and Technology’, History, 58, 192, 29, 10.1111/j.1468-229X.1973.tb02131.x · DOI
  137. Tann, 1973b, ‘The Employment of Power in the West of England Wool Textile Industry, 1790–1840’
  138. Taylor, 1949, ‘Concentration and Specialization in the Lancashire Cotton Industry, 1825–1850’, The Economic History Review, 1, 2/3, 114
  139. Thomas, 1985, ‘Escaping from Constraints: The Industrial Revolution in a Malthusian Context’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 15, 4, 729, 10.2307/204277 · DOI
  140. Thompson, 1966 [1963], The Making of the English Working Class
  141. Thompson, 1967, ‘Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism’, Past and Present, 38, 56, 10.1093/past/38.1.56 · DOI
  142. Trainer, 2012, ‘A Critique of Jacobson and Delucchi’s Proposals for a World Renewable Energy Supply’, Energy Policy, 44, 476, 10.1016/j.enpol.2011.09.037 · DOI
  143. Turner, 1962, Trade Union Growth, Structure and Policy
  144. Turner, 1958, ‘The Significance of Water Power in Industrial Location: Some Perthshire Examples’, Scottish Geographical Magazine, 74, 2, 98, 10.1080/00369225808735713 · DOI
  145. Ure, 1835, The Philosophy of Manufactures: Or, An Exposition of the Scientific, Moral and Commercial Economy of the Factory System
  146. Ure, 1836, The Cotton Manufacture of Great Britain
  147. von Tunzelmann, 1978, Steam Power and British Industrialization to 1860
  148. Ward, 1962, The Factory Movement, 1830–1855, 10.1007/978-1-349-81759-7 · DOI
  149. Weart, 2003, The Discovery of Global Warming
  150. Wilkinson, 1973, Poverty and Progress: An Ecological Model of Economic Development
  151. Williamson, 1988, ‘Migrant Selectivity, Urbanization, and Industrial Revolutions’, Population and Development Review, 14, 2, 287, 10.2307/1973573 · DOI
  152. Woolrich, 1997, ‘John Farey, Jr. (1791–1851), Engineer and Polymath’, History of Technology, 19, 112
  153. Woolrich, 1998, ‘John Farey, Jr., Technical Author and Draughtsman: His Contribution to Rees’s Cyclopedia’, Industrial Archaeology Review, 20, 1, 49, 10.1179/iar.1998.20.1.49 · DOI
  154. Woolrich, 2000, ‘John Farey and His Treatise on the Steam Engineof 1827’, History of Technology, 22, 63
  155. Wrigley, 1962, ‘The Supply of Raw Materials in the Industrial Revolution’, The Economic History Review, 15, 1, 1, 10.2307/2593286 · DOI
  156. Wrigley, 1972, ‘The Process of Modernization and the Industrial Revolution in England’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 3, 2, 225, 10.2307/202329 · DOI
  157. Wrigley, 1988, ‘The Limits to Growth: Malthus and the Classical Economists’, Population and Development Review, 14, 30, 10.2307/2808089 · DOI
  158. Wrigley, 1990 [1988], Continuity, Chance and Change: The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England
  159. Wrigley, 2000, ‘The Divergence of England: The Growth of the English Economy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6, 10, 117, 10.1017/S0080440100000062 · DOI
  160. Wrigley, 2004, Poverty, Progress, and Population, 10.1017/CBO9780511616365 · DOI
  161. Wrigley, 2010, Energy and the English Industrial Revolution, 10.1017/CBO9780511779619 · DOI · Paper page
  162. Zalasiewicz, 2008, ‘Are We Now Living in the Anthropocene?’, GSA Today, 18, 2, 4, 10.1130/GSAT01802A.1 · DOI

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Metadata

Authors
Malm, A.
Affiliations
Human Ecology Division/LUCID, Lund University
Venue
Historical Materialism
Publisher
Walter de Gruyter GmbH
Published
2013
Volume
21
Issue
1
Pages
15-68
ISSN
  • 1465-4466
  • 1569-206X
DOI
10.1163/1569206x-12341279
Cited by
120
References
3

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review