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Ten-Year Prospective Follow-Up Study of the Naturalistic Course of Dysthymic Disorder and Double Depression
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to describe the 10-year course and outcome of dysthymic disorder. METHOD: The authors conducted a naturalistic, prospective, longitudinal follow-up of 97 adults with early-onset dysthymic disorder and 45 adults with nonchronic major depressive disorder selected from consecutive admissions to several outpatient facilities. Follow-up data were obtained for 90% of the cohort. Assessments were conducted at baseline, 30, 60, 90, and 120 months. Measures included the Longitudinal Interval Follow-Up Evaluation and the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale. RESULTS: The Kaplan-Meier estimated recovery rate from dysthymic disorder was 73.9%, with a median time to recovery of 52 months. Among patients who recovered, the estimated risk of relapse into another period of chronic depression was 71.4%. Chronic depressive relapses took a variety of forms and were not limited to dysthymia. Nonetheless, the distinction between chronic and nonchronic forms of depression was relatively stable over the follow-up period. Mixed-effects models indicated that patients with dysthymic disorder experienced a significantly slower rate of improvement in symptoms over time and exhibited significantly greater depression at the 10-year point, compared to patients with nonchronic major depression. CONCLUSIONS: Dysthymic disorder has a protracted course and is associated with a high risk of relapse. The nature of chronic depressive episodes varies over time within individuals, indicating that the various manifestations of chronic depression in DSM-IV do not represent distinct disorders. However, the distinction between chronic and nonchronic forms of depression is relatively stable and may provide a useful basis for subtyping in genetic and neurobiological research.
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“These findings are in accordance with other naturalistic long-term follow-up investigations showing high rates of persistent illness and recurrences in dysthymia and panic disorder with agoraphobia [2,3,8].”
From Helpful and hindering factors for remission in dysthymia and panic disorder at 9-year follow-up: A mixed methods study (2008) · cites this paper as [3]
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“…to patients with episodic depression, patients with chronic depression exhibit higher rates of comorbid disorders, greater functional impairment (Klein et al., 2006, 2000; Wells et al., 1992), and are more difficult to treat with both pharmacologic and psychotherapeutic interventions (Howland,…”
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Edvardsen, J., Torgersen, S. O., Røysamb, E., Lygren, S., Skre, I., Onstad, S., & Øien, P. A. (2009) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2008.12.004 · Cited by 31
“Comorbidity between major depression and dysthymia (double depression) is common, especially when viewed in a lifetime perspective (Keller et al.,1995; Klein et al., 2006; Klein et al., 2008).”
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“This observation is in line with consistent findings indicating slower treatment response for chronic forms of depression (Cuijpers et al., 2010; Klein et al., 2006).”
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Gureje, O. (2010) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0b013e32834136a5 · Cited by 27
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“Dysthymic disorder and double depression should be regarded as the same chronic depression viewed at a different stage [45], with an even worse course than major depression alone [46].”
BackgroundAffective and cognitive reactivity to mood induction in chronic depression
Guhn, A., Sterzer, P., Haack, F. H., & Köhler, S. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.12.090 · Cited by 32
Using a peer evaluation system to assess faculty performance and competence.
Rosenbaum, M., Ferguson, K. J., Kreiter, C. D., & Johnson, C. A. (2005) · PubMed · Cited by 22
A comparison of the course of burnout and prolonged fatigue: A 4-year prospective cohort study
Leone, S. S., Huibers, M. J. H., Knottnerus, J. A., & Kant, I. (2008) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.03.018 · Cited by 23
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Dysfunctional attitudes as a moderator of pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy for chronic depression
Shankman, S. A., Campbell, M. L., Klein, D. N., Leon, A. C., Arnow, B. A., Manber, R., Keller, M. B., Markowitz, J. C., ROTHBAUM, B. O., Thase, M. E., et al. (2012) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.09.018 · Cited by 26
Self-citationImproving work outcomes of dysthymia (persistent depressive disorder) in an employed population
Adler, D. A., Lerner, D., Visco, Z. L., Greenhill, A., Chang, H., Cymerman, E., Azocar, F., & Rogers, W. H. (2015) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2015.04.001 · Cited by 23
“Discussion Chronic depressive symptoms have a negative impacted on ability to function in important social roles and activities, including employment [1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 17, 20].”
BackgroundKühnen, T., Knappke, F., Otto, T., Friedrich, S., Klein, J. P., Kahl, K. G., Hüppe, M., Sipos, V., & Schweiger, U. (2011) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-11-199 · Cited by 21
“Common to all five courses is that depressive symptoms last two or more years without any symptom-free periods lasting for more than two months [5].”
BackgroundQuest for Timely Detection and Treatment of Women With Depression
Alexander, J. L. (2007) · Journal of Managed Care Pharmacy · doi:10.18553/jmcp.2007.13.9-a.3 · Cited by 21
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Desvenlafaxine in the treatment of major depression: an updated overview
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“It frequently leads to functional impairment, negative health outcomes, and social costs [28].”
BackgroundA proposed model for economic evaluations of major depressive disorder
Afzali, H. H. A., Karnon, J. D., & Gray, J. (2011) · The European Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1007/s10198-011-0321-3 · Cited by 19
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“Los autores manifiestan que no tienen conflictos de interés en este artículo”
The Course of Depressive Symptoms in Older Adults With Comorbid Major Depression and Dysthymia
Hybels, C. F., Pieper, C. F., Blazer, D. G., & Steffens, D. C. (2008) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/jgp.0b013e318162f15f · Cited by 17
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“…depressive disorder (MDD), including female gender (Kessing et al., 1998), existence of prior episodes (Kessing and Andersen, 1999; Kessing et al., 2004), presence of dysthymia (Klein et al., 2006), personality disorder (Grilo et al., 2010), and psychopathology comorbidity (Keller et al., 1992).”
BackgroundPersistent Depression as a Novel Diagnostic Category: Results from the Menderes Depression Study
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Furukawa, T. A., Schramm, E., Weitz, E. S., Salanti, G., Efthimiou, O., Michalak, J., Watanabe, N., Cipriani, A., Keller, M. B., Kocsis, J. H., et al. (2016) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011769 · Cited by 16
“responses to these treatments remain typically slow and poor.(7) Differential responses among different modalities of treatments or their combinations remain poorly”
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The impact of comorbid dysthymic disorder on outcome in personality disorders
Hellerstein, D. J., Skodol, A. E., Petkova, E., Xie, H. W., Markowitz, J. C., Yen, S., Gunderson, J. G., Grilo, C. M., Daversa, M. T., & McGlashan, T. H. (2010) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2009.11.002 · Cited by 16
“Likewise, personality disorder (PD) comorbidity has been shown to predict poorer outcome for numerous Axis I disorders, particularly major depression [3-7], but also dysthymic disorder [8].”
BackgroundTani, H., Tada, M., Maeda, T., Konishi, M., Umeda, S., Terasawa, Y., Mimura, M., Takahashi, T., & Uchida, H. (2018) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.12805 · Cited by 16
“Patients with depression frequently experience persistent emotional and physical disabilities that lead to deterioration of their social functioning.(21,22) They exhibit negative emotionality, such as neuroticism, increased sensitivity to negative interpersonal stimuli, and present with a poor stress-coping ability.”
BackgroundFuture Thinking and Depression
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“These findings are in accordance with other naturalistic longterm follow-up investigations showing high rates of persistent illness and recurrences in dysthymia and panic disorder with agoraphobia [2,3,8].”
BackgroundResultHayden, E. P., Olino, T. M., Bufferd, S. J., Miller, A., Dougherty, L. R., Sheikh, H. I., Singh, S. M., & Klein, D. N. (2013) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579413000035 · Cited by 17
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“Dysthymia is also associated with an increased risk of suicide [23], and almost all patients with dysthymia will eventually have a major depressive episode [24].”
BackgroundPublic Health Perspectives on Depressive Disorders
Cohen, N. L. (2017) · Johns Hopkins University Press eBooks · doi:10.1353/book.52762 · Cited by 15
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“In non-AA samples, most who recover from dysthymia go on to have further episodes of dysthymia and many experience major depressive episodes (Klein et al., 2006).”
Current pharmacotherapeutic approaches for dysthymic disorder and persistent depressive disorder
Carta, M. G., Paribello, P., Nardi, A. E., & Preti, A. (2019) · Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1080/14656566.2019.1637419 · Cited by 14
“Significantly, the stability of the diagnosis (chronic vs non-chronic depressive syndromes) turned out to be stable over time [22].”
BackgroundOne-year severity of depressive symptoms: Results from the NESDA study
Lamers, F., Beekman, A. T. F., de Jonge, P., Smit, J. H., Nolen, W. A., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2011) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.07.005 · Cited by 13
“In contrast with previous studies (Klein et al., 2006; Rhebergen et al., 2008), we found that longer duration of MDD at baseline did not predict higher IDS scores at follow-up after inclusion of risk factors to the model.”
Hellerstein, D. J., Hunnicutt‐Ferguson, K., Stewart, J. W., McGrath, P. J., Keller, S. N., Peterson, B. S., & Chen, Y. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.026 · Cited by 12
“…is associated with significant functional impairment, including poor social functioning, high rates of health care utilization, and increased unemployment and use of public entitlements (Berndt et al., 2000; Friedman, 1993; Keller, 1994; Klein, Shankman, and Rose, 2006; Rappaport et al., 2005).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Klein, D. N., Shankman, S. A., & Rose, S.
- Affiliations
- Stony Brook University (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Psychiatry
- Published
- 2006-05
- Volume
- 163
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 872-880
- ISSN
- 0002-953X (ISSN-L)
- 1535-7228
- OpenAlex
- W2084454764
- Cited by
- 194
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 7.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH045757)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Treatment of Major Depression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- dysthymia, double depression, chronic depression, course of depression, relapse, recovery, long-term outcomes, depression subtyping
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Chronic Disease, Major Depressive Disorder, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Terminology as Topic, Prognosis, Prospective Studies, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Recurrence, Risk Factors, Severity of Illness Index, Cohort Studies, Comorbidity, Survival Analysis, Age of Onset, Dysthymic Disorder, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
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