Ethnic and Sex Differences in Suicide Rates Relative to Major Depression in the United States
Abstract
Objective Suicide rates differ between ethnic groups in the United States. Since suicide is commonly associated with a mood disorder, the authors compared suicide rates relative to depression rates in five ethnic groups in the United States. Method Rates of major depression were generated from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area study and the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Epidemiologic Survey. Sociodemographic effects were determined by examining depression rates for respondents who were separated or divorced, earning low incomes, or not working for pay. The survey data were analyzed with age and sex standardization to generate 1-year prevalence rates of major depression. The depression rates of the different ethnic groups were compared and were examined in relation to suicide rates. Results The 1-year prevalence rates of major depression were 3.6% for whites, 3.5% for blacks, 2.8% for Mexican Americans, 2.5% for Cuban Americans, and 6.9% for Puerto Ricans. Compared to the rate for whites, the rate of depression was significantly higher in Puerto Ricans and significantly lower in Mexican Americans. Relative to the depression rates, the annual suicide rates were higher for males than for females. Mexican American and Puerto Rican males had lower relative suicide rates than white males. Conclusions Identifying reasons for differences in suicide rates relative to depression among ethnic groups and between males and females may suggest interventions to reduce suicide rates. Some pos…
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The limited research on ethnicity, gender, and depression in the United States does not indicate variation by ethnicity in the gender difference in depression.
“The limited research on ethnicity, gender, and depression in the United States does not indicate variation by ethnicity in the gender difference in depression”
From Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms (2017) · cites this paper as Oquendo et al., 2001
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BackgroundSex Differences in Responses to Antidepressant Augmentations in Treatment-Resistant Depression
Moderie, C., Nuñez, N. A., Fielding, A., Comai, S., & Gobbi, G. (2022) · International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyac017 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“As in multiple studies, the number of suicide attempts was higher in women than in men, which could reflect the higher completion rate in men (Kessler et al. 1993; Oquendo et al. 2001).”
Grunebaum, M. F., Oquendo, M., & Manly, J. (2008) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2007.04.022 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Different depression rates between Hispanic subgroups are reported (Oquendo et al., 2001), but little is known about antidepressant use among Dominicans, who made up 56% of our Hispanic sample.”
BackgroundSelf-citationDepression and Help Seeking Among Mexican–Americans: The Mediating Role of Familism
Keeler, A. R., Siegel, J. T., & Alvaro, E. M. (2013) · Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health · doi:10.1007/s10903-013-9824-6 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“treatment for depression [14].”
Azorin, J., Belzeaux, R., Fakra, E., Kaladjian, A., Hantouche, E., Lancrenon, S., & Adida, M. (2014) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.05.058 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“It is likely that hyperthymic temperament may account for the psychopathic features as a symptomatological overlap was recently shown between hyperthymic temperamental traits and antisocial personality disorder criteria (Perugi et al., 2012). Rutz (2001) used the term “alexithymia” to characterize males’ incapacity to…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialYoshimasu, K., Sugahara, H., Tokunaga, S., Akamine, M., Kondo, T., Fujisawa, K., Miyashita, K., & Kubo, C. (2006) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2006.01559.x · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“In addition, cultural specificity may have some effect upon the tendency toward suicide if it is viewed as one aspect of behavioral patterns which are influenced to some extent by the culture.(5,10) Several studies(11,12) have”
BackgroundJhee, J., Lee, E., Cha, M.-U., Lee, M., Kim, H., Park, S., Yun, H., Jung, S.-Y., Kee, Y. K., Yoon, C.-Y., et al. (2017) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000008476 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Garbett, K., Horváth, S., Ebert, P., Schmidt, M., Lwin, K., Mitchell, A., Levitt, P., & Mirnics, K. (2010) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2010.1 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“9 Moreover, it is also possible that these very differences in genetic profiles in different ethnic groups explain, in part, the different observed prevalence rates for psychiatric disorders across ethnic groups”
The Relationship Between Greenspace Exposure and Psychopathology Symptoms: A Systematic Review
Tran, I., Sabol, O., & Mote, J. (2022) · Biological Psychiatry Global Open Science · doi:10.1016/j.bpsgos.2022.01.004 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Kim, Y.-J., Peragallo, N., & DeForge, B. (2006) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2005.07.005 · Cited by 34
Characteristics of Fathers with Depressive Symptoms
Rosenthal, D. G., Learned, N., Liu, Y., & Weitzman, M. L. (2012) · Maternal and Child Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10995-012-0955-5 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Spanish translation and validation of the Interpersonal Needs Questionnaire.
Silva, C., Hurtado, G., Hartley, C. M., Villafaña, J. N. R., Hovey, J. D., Pettit, J. W., Chorot, P., Valiente, R. M., Sandín, B., & Joiner, T. E. (2018) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000643 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Historically, compared with other racial or ethnic groups, Hispanics in the United States have been at decreased risk for suicide ideation, attempts, and death (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017; Hoppe & Martin, 1986; Oquendo et al., 2001; Sorenson & Golding, 1988).”
BackgroundNew Insights on Cultural Patterns of Suicide in the United States: The Role of Honor Culture
Crowder, M. K., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2017) · Cross-Cultural Research · doi:10.1177/1069397117712192 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Indeed, the suicide rates for European Americans are much higher than the suicide rates among African Americans (e.g., Oquendo et al., 2001); therefore, we expect that the above patterns hypothesized for suicides in men and women might be most pronounced in European Americans compared with African…”
BackgroundRole of severity and gender in the association between late-life depression and all-cause mortality
Jeong, H.-G., Lee, J., Lee, S., Park, J., Huh, Y., Han, J. W., Kim, T., Chin, H. J., & Kim, K. W. (2012) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610212002190 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Third, depressed men commit suicide more often than depressed women (Hawton, 2000; Oquendo et al., 2001).”
BackgroundDeterminants of adolescent suicidal ideation: rural versus urban.
Murphy, S. M. (2014) · Journal of Rural Health · doi:10.1111/jrh.12042 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Suicidal Behavior in Young Women
Baca‐García, E., Pérez-Rodríguez, M. M., Mann, J. J., & Oquendo, M. A. (2008) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2008.01.002 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Association Between Masculinity and Nonsuicidal Self-Injury
Green, J. D., Kearns, J. C., Ledoux, A. M., Addis, M. E., & Marx, B. P. (2015) · American Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.1177/1557988315624508 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“…important clinical implications, particularly given the strong link between NSSI and suicide (Nock, Joiner, Gordon, LlyodRichardson, & Prinstein, 2006) and men’s increased risk of death by suicide (Centers for Disease Control, 2011; Oquendo et al., 2001; U.S. Department of Justice, 1995- 2006).”
BackgroundStaples, J. M., & Fuller, C. C. (2021) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2021.1894291 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“…research should seek to examine how transgender visibility may impact other forms of victimization, which could help explain why suicide disproportionately affects transgender adults (Clements-Nolle et al., 2006) compared to the general U.S population (Bostwick et al., 2000; Oquendo et al., 2001).”
BackgroundSherman, L. D., Patterson, M. S., Tomar, A., & Wigfall, L. T. (2020) · American Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.1177/1557988320901377 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“For instance, males commit suicide more often than women (Oquendo et al., 2001) and experience higher levels of alcohol use and abuse (Karlamangla et al.”
BackgroundStacciarini, J. (2009) · Issues in Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.3109/01612840903177456 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“US Latinos are almost twice as likely as whites to experience depression in a given year (Alegrı́a, Canino, Stinson, & Grant, 2006; Oquendo et al., 2001) but use mental health services less often, are less likely to receive appropriate treatment, and are underrepresented in mental health research (Delgado et al.”
BackgroundDelgado, P., Alegría, M., Cañive, J., Diaz, E., Escobar, J., Kopelowicz, A., Oquendo, M., Ruiz, P., & Vega, W. (2006) · FOCUS The Journal of Lifelong Learning in Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/foc.4.1.38 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationAssociation between FKBP5 and CRHR1 genes with suicidal behavior: A systematic review
la Cruz-Cano, E. D. (2017) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2016.09.032 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“In clinical perspective, several tudies have shown that the majority of suicides are commited by patients with neuropsychiatric disorders, among which nclude major depressive disorder [3,4], anxiety [5,6], hopelessess [7,8], bipolar disorder [9], schizophrenia [10,11], Alzheimer’s isease [12], as well as substance abu…”
Harada, N., Takeshita, J., Ahmed, I., Chen, R., Petrovitch, H., Ross, G. W., & Masaki, K. (2011) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/jgp.0b013e3182107e3b · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Long, K. A., Kao, B. T., Plante, W., Seifer, R., & Lobato, D. (2015) · American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1352/1944-7558-120.2.145 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Kim, B., Kang, E., D, M. F. M., Mischoulon, D., Soskin, D. P., Yu, B., Lee, D., Lee, D., Park, H., & Jeon, H. J. (2013) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2013.08.057 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“, 2007), while men have higher completed suicide rates (Oquendo et al., 2001).”
BackgroundWithin-group differences in depression among older Hispanics living in the United States.
Yang, F. M., Cazorla-Lancaster, Y., & Jones, R. N. (2008) · The journals of gerontology. Series B, Psychological sciences and social sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/63.1.p27 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
The Relationship Among Trauma, Acculturation, and Mental Health Symptoms in Somali Refugees
Jorgenson, K., & Nilsson, J. E. (2021) · Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000020968548 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Studies comparing first-generation immigrants with second-generation Asian and Latinx immigrants provide support to investigate this relationship further (e.g., Escobar & Vega, 2000; Oquendo et al., 2001; Takeuchi et al., 2007).”
BackgroundRote, S., & Brown, R. (2013) · Journal of Addictive Diseases · doi:10.1080/10550887.2013.859452 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Substance Misuse, Suicidal Ideation, and Suicide Attempts Among a National Sample of Homeless
Dietz, T. L. (2011) · Journal of Social Service Research · doi:10.1080/01488376.2011.524511 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Lombardo, G., Nettis, M. A., Hastings, C. N. M., Zajkowska, Z., Mariani, N., Nikkheslat, N., Worrell, C., Enache, D., McLaughlin, A. P., Kose, M., et al. (2022) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2022.100561 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
- Authors
- Oquendo, M. A., Ellis, S. P., Greenwald, S., Malone, K. M., Weissman, M. M., & Mann, J. J.
- Affiliations
- New York State Psychiatric Institute (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Psychiatry
- Published
- 2001-10
- Volume
- 158
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1652-1658
- ISSN
- 0002-953X (ISSN-L)
- 1535-7228
- OpenAlex
- W2169695492
- Cited by
- 256
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 26 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 7.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH35636, MH46745, P01MH037592, MH37592, MH30906)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Homicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse
- Keywords
- suicide rates, major depressive disorder, ethnic differences, sex differences, Puerto Ricans, Mexican Americans, Cuban Americans, Hispanic Americans, African Americans, White Americans, sociodemographic factors, depression prevalence, suicide prevention
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Black or African American, Depressive Disorder, Ethnicity, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Severity of Illness Index, Sex Factors, Suicide, United States, Prevalence, Mexican Americans, White People
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