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Cited by 8Criminal Justice and Corrections AnalysisSubstance Abuse Treatment and OutcomesPsychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual Offending

Behavioral Health and Social Correlates of Reincarceration Among Hispanic, Native American, and White Rural Women

Open access
Willging, Cathleen Elizabeth, Malcoe, Lorraine Halinka, St. Cyr, Shilo, Zywiak, William H., Lapham, Sandra C.·2013·Psychiatric Services
DOI 10.1176/appi.ps.201200120PMC PMC4251457
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Abstract

OBJECTIVE: To identify community reentry needs, this study examined mental illness, substance dependence, and other correlates of reincarceration in an ethnically diverse, rural population of women prisoners. METHODS: A purposive, cross-sectional sample of 98 women in a New Mexico state prison completed structured interviews. Analyses examined associations of substance dependence, mental illness, lifetime trauma, and sociodemographic variables with previous incarceration. RESULTS: Eighty-five percent screened positive for substance dependence, 50% for current mental disorders, and 46% for both. Exposure to trauma was pervasive (100%), especially physical or sexual trauma (83%). In adjusted analyses, previous incarceration was associated with precarious housing before imprisonment (odds ratio [OR]=2.19, p=.038) and with having co-occurring mental illness and substance dependence (OR=2.68, p=.019). CONCLUSIONS: Findings support those of similar studies in urban areas and with other ethnic groups. Wraparound programs focusing on harm reduction, housing, and treatment and support services are needed for successful reentry of these underserved women.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This cross-sectional study of 98 rural women prisoners in New Mexico found high rates of substance dependence, mental illness, trauma, and co-occurring disorders. Adjusted analyses linked previous incarceration to precarious housing before prison and co-occurring mental illness and substance dependence.

Key findings

  • 85% (N=83) screened positive for substance dependence, 50% (N=49) for a current axis I mental disorder other than substance dependence, and 46% (N=45) for both.
  • Lifetime trauma exposure was universal: 100% reported at least one traumatic event, 83% (N=81) reported physical or sexual trauma, and 96% (N=94) reported at least two lifetime trauma incidents.
  • In adjusted analyses, previous incarceration was associated with precarious housing before imprisonment (OR=2.19, p=.038) and co-occurring mental illness and substance dependence (OR=2.68, p=.019), controlling for age at first arrest.
  • Bivariate analysis found co-occurring disorders in 59% of women with a previous incarceration versus 35% of first-time prisoners (p=.017).

Methods

  • Purposive, cross-sectional sample of 98 women in New Mexico’s only women’s prison, recruited April–August 2009; eligible women were scheduled for release within six months to rural micropolitan or noncore counties.
  • Participants completed 60- to 90-minute structured interviews assessing sociodemographics, current mental disorders (MINI International Neuropsychiatric Interview), substance dependence in the year before incarceration (Texas Christian University Drug Screen), and lifetime trauma (Trauma Health Questionnaire).
  • Analyses used descriptive statistics, bivariate tests (chi square or Fisher’s exact), and multivariate logistic regression comparing first-time prisoners (N=52) with those who had a previous incarceration (N=46).

Limitations

  • The paper states that the cross-sectional design precluded establishing temporal relationships between study variables and reincarceration.
  • The paper states that comparing women with a previous incarceration with first-time prisoners meant not all women had an equal chance to experience reincarceration, limiting determination of actual recidivism rates.
  • The paper states that the small sample limited estimate precision and statistical power, and that findings from a prison population may not fully generalize to women in jail; the text also makes evident that the purposive sampling strategy limits broader generalizability.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1176/appi.ps.201200120

Cites

13 of 13 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

5 of 18 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Interpretationcitation

    The reentry needs of the participants closely resemble those of urban inmates.

    “Although the reentry needs of our participants closely resemble those of urban inmates (4, 5)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [4] source
    • cites [5] source

      The discussion describes reentry needs among female detainees in Baltimore, including housing, income, employment support, and family ties. It supports a comparison with urban female jail detainees, but does not establish that these needs characterize urban inmates generally. (LLM, conf=0.78)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    The needs of rural women often remain unmet because of insufficient mental health care and social service delivery in rural areas.

    “the needs of rural women often remain unmet because of insufficient mental health care and social service delivery in rural areas (3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] source

      The Introduction (page unavailable) describes shortages in rural mental health services, and the Conclusion (page unavailable) reports extremely limited workforce capacity in some rural areas. But the study focuses on low-income adults with severe mental illness, not rural women specifically, and it does not establish that inadequate social service delivery leaves their needs unmet. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Supportive housing initiatives specific to people leaving prison have been shown to be effective in reducing reincarceration.

    “Supportive housing initiatives specific to people leaving prison have been shown to be effective in reducing reincarceration (14).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] source

      The Outpatient services section reports fewer people jailed and fewer incarceration days after supportive-housing placement. But the initiative studied housed homeless people with severe mental illness, not specifically people leaving prison; the reported outcome is incarceration after placement, not a measured reincarceration rate for prison leavers. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Reentry studies of women prisoners generally focus on African American, Hispanic, and White inmates in urban areas rather than on women returning to rural communities with large Hispanic or Native American populations.

    “Reentry studies of women prisoners generally focus on African American, Hispanic, and White inmates in urban areas rather than on women returning to rural communities with large Hispanic or Native American populations (4-6).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [4] source
    • cites [5] source

      The Study Design section describes a study of women detained in Baltimore City, and the discussion says the sample was majority African-American. This makes the paper an example of urban reentry research, but it studies jail detainees rather than prisoners and does not establish what reentry studies generally focus on or compare that literature with research on rural Hispanic or Native American communities. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [6] Gunter TD, 2008, Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law
  • Findingown data

    Among those reporting an axis I disorder other than substance dependence, mood disorders (51%) and anxiety disorders (67%), particularly posttraumatic stress disorder (24%), were most common.

    “Among those reporting an axis I disorder other than substance dependence, mood disorders (N=25, 51%) and anxiety disorders (N=33, 67%), particularly posttraumatic stress disorder (N=12, 24%), were most common.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 6
  • May combine two claims. 8

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Micropolitan counties (<50,000 residents) and noncore counties (<10,000 residents) are regarded as rural.

    “Both types of counties are regarded as rural (3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The sample included 33 self-identified Hispanic, 33 Native American, and 32 White or Anglo women.

    “The sample included self-identified Hispanic (N=33), Native American (N=33), and White or Anglo (N=32) women.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In bivariate analyses, women with a previous incarceration had a somewhat higher occurrence of precarious housing before prison entry (p=.058), but the difference was not significant.

    “compared with first-time prisoners, women who had a previous incarceration had a somewhat higher occurrence of precarious housing before prison entry (p=.058)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The multivariate logistic regression analysis controlled for age at first arrest.

    “after the analysis controlled for age at first arrest.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Findings from a prison population may not fully generalize to women in jail.

    “Findings from a prison population may not fully generalize to women in jail.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The small sample limited the precision of estimates and reduced statistical power to detect associations with reincarceration.

    “Our small sample limited the precision of estimates and reduced statistical power to detect associations with reincarceration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Comorbidity, if inadequately addressed, can undermine reentry by increasing the risk of persistent housing problems, lost productivity and lost employment opportunities, and failures at family reunification.

    “Our results are similar to those of previous studies of women prisoners, suggesting that such comorbidity, if inadequately addressed, can undermine reentry by increasing the risk of persistent housing problems, lost productivity and lost employment opportunities, and failures at family reunification (2, 15).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [2] source
    • cites [15] Landsberg G, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In New Mexico, Hispanic women are overrepresented among incarcerated women: 42% of adult women are Hispanic, but this group makes up 65% of all incarcerated women in the state.

    “although 42% of adult women in New Mexico are Hispanic (7), this group makes up 65% of all incarcerated women in the state (8).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [7]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [8] 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    An Iowa prison study found that 91% of 56 African American and White women had one or more current disorders, including substance use disorders (82%), mood disorders (61%), and anxiety disorders (46%).

    “An Iowa prison study found that 91% of 56 African American and White women had one or more current disorders, including substance use disorders (82%), mood disorders (61%), and anxiety disorders (46%) (6).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Gunter TD, 2008, Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Because women with a previous incarceration were compared with first-time prisoners, not all women had an equal chance to experience reincarceration, curtailing the ability to determine actual recidivism rates.

    “We compared women with a previous incarceration with first-time prisoners; thus not all women had an equal chance to experience reincarceration, which curtailed our ability to determine actual recidivism rates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a study involving African American and Hispanic women in a Chicago jail, 80% of 1,272 inmates had lifetime disorders, including substance use disorders (64%), posttraumatic stress disorder (34%), and major depression (17%).

    “In a study involving African American and Hispanic women in a Chicago jail, 80% of 1,272 inmates had lifetime disorders, including substance use disorders (64%), posttraumatic stress disorder (34%), and major depression (17%) (11).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] source
11 of 11

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In New Mexico, nearly 45% of women prisoners are from rural communities.

    “In New Mexico, nearly 45% of women prisoners are from rural communities.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    This is the first published study of current mental disorders and reentry issues among rural Hispanic and Native American women prisoners.

    “To our knowledge, this is the first published study of current mental disorders and reentry issues among rural Hispanic and Native American women prisoners.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Rural Hispanic and Native American women prisoners are largely absent from the literature.

    “A key strength was our focus on rural Hispanic and Native American women prisoners, groups that are largely absent from the literature.”
3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. 2009, New Mexico Prison Facts
  2. 2006, TCU Drug Screen II

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Willging, C. E., Malcoe, L. H., St. Cyr, S., Zywiak, W. H., & Lapham, S. C.
Affiliations
  • Simon Fraser University (CA)
  • Dr. Willging and Dr. Lapham are affiliated with the Behavioral Health Research Center of the Southwest, Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation, 612 Encino Pl., N.E., Albuquerque, NM 87102 (e-mail: ). Dr. Malcoe is with the Joseph J. Zilber School of Public Health, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. Ms. St. Cyr is with the Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada. Dr. Zywiak is with the Decision Sciences Institute, Pacific Institute for Research and...
ORCID
Venue
Psychiatric Services
Publisher
American Psychiatric Association Publishing
Published
2013-06
Volume
64
Issue
6
Pages
590-593
ISSN
  • 0022-1597 (ISSN-L)
  • 1075-2730
  • 1557-9700
DOI
10.1176/appi.ps.201200120
PMC
PMC4251457
OpenAlex
W2031940293
Cited by
8
References
13
Citations by year
2025: 1 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 1
FWCI
2.05
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Psychiatric Services (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • Texas Christian University
  • National Institute of Mental Health (R34MH082186)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual Offending
Keywords
reincarceration, women prisoners, rural women, Hispanic women, Native American women, substance dependence, mental illness, trauma exposure, housing instability, prisoner reentry, harm reduction, ethnic disparities
MeSH terms
Adult, Mental Disorders, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Indians, North American, Middle Aged, New Mexico, Prisoners, Rural Population, Socioeconomic Factors, White People, Young Adult

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-27.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-27.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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