Cited by 136Suicide and Self-Harm StudiesRacial and Ethnic Identity ResearchLGBTQ Health, Identity, and Policy

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Suicide among Black Children: An Integrated Model of the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide and Intersectionality Theory for Researchers and Clinicians

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Opara, Ijeoma, Assan, Maame Araba, Pierre, Kimberly, Gunn, John F., Metzger, Isha, Hamilton, Jahi, Arugu, Eileen·2020·Journal of Black Studies

DOI 10.1177/0021934720935641PMC PMC8301214

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Abstract

Recently, research has reported that the rates of suicide among Black children between the ages of 5 to 12-years-old are increasing as they are now more likely to commit suicide than White children. Yet, there are very few, if any, frameworks being used by researchers to explain the risks of suicide among Black children. Suicide research has overwhelmingly been focused on White youth thus leaving a critical gap in suicide research. This conceptual paper provides an integrated framework using the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide and Intersectionality theory, as a guide for researchers, clinicians, and practitioners to incorporate culturally appropriate techniques in their work as a way to prevent suicide among Black children. This framework highlights racial discrimination, mental health, socioeconomic status, and sexual/gender minority status to be the most preeminent, yet understudied factors leading to suicide risk among Black children in the United States.

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BackgroundInfluential
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Baiden, P., Szlyk, H. S., Peoples, J. E., Vázquez, M. M., Harrell, D. R., & Cavazos‐Rehg, P. A. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2023.100511 · Cited by 7
Risk and Protective Factor specific to African American Youth and Adolescents: A Systematic Review
Reed, D. D., & Adams, R. D. (2020) · Journal of Family Strengths · doi:10.58464/2168-670x.1435 · Cited by 8
“…propose that individuals engaged in formulation of policies to begin denoting the psychological and social influences of police brutality impact upon African American youth and adolescents at risk for suicidal ideation (Alang, McAlpine, McCreedy, & Hardeman, 2017; Howard, 2016; Opara et al., 2020).”
Background
Suicidal Behaviors in Youth with Foster Care Experience
Katz, C. C., Busby, D. R., & Wall, E. V. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-82465-5_15 · Cited by 6
Structural racism and suicide risk among Black youth: A systematic review
Bell, K., Nicoletti, T. R., & Ammerman, B. A. (2025) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579425100667 · Cited by 6
“The intersection of racism and thwarted belongingness and hopelessness demonstrated by Douglas et al. (2024), confirms the theory that Black youth likely experience these interpersonal factors within the context of their racial identity (Opara et al., 2020).”
Influential
Race-Based Rejection Sensitivity and the Integrated Motivational Volitional Model of Suicide in a Sample of Black Women
Clement, D. N., Awad, S. A., Oliphant, V. N., & Wingate, L. R. (2023) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026221147265 · Cited by 7
“The existing research on intersectionality and health highlights the impact of multiplicative identities and the concurrent risk factors that stem from those intersecting identities (Opara et al., 2020).”
Background
Fearlessness about death and suicidal ideation: Religious identity matters
Hart, F. G., Stewart, J. G., Hudson, C. C., Fan, K., Björgvinsson, Þ., & Beard, C. (2024) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.13069 · Cited by 6
A systems science approach to identifying data gaps in national data sources on adolescent suicidal ideation and suicide attempt in the United States
Giabbanelli, P. J., Rice, K., Nataraj, N., Brown, M. M., & Harper, C. R. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-15320-8 · Cited by 6
Cultural Consensus Modeling to identify culturally relevant reasons for and against suicide among Black adolescents
Hill, R. M., Busby, D. R., Brown, J. L., Sumlin, E. D., Fernandez, E., & Sharp, C. (2023) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.13000 · Cited by 7
Quantifying the Representation of Black Adolescents in Suicide Intervention Research
Sumlin, E. D., Hill, R., Asim, N., Busby, D. R., Brown, J. L., & Sharp, C. (2023) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-023-01113-5 · Cited by 7
“Here, we drew on several influential recent reviews (Sheftall et al., 2022a, b; Sheftall & Miller, 2021; Opara et al., 2020; Meza et al., 2022; and Oppenheimer et al., 2022).”
Influential
At Risk and A Risk: Disrupting Anti-Black Hate Toward Black Males in K-12 Schools
Howard, J., McAdoo, G., & Howard, T. C. (2025) · Urban Education · doi:10.1177/00420859251371682 · Cited by 5
“…among Black males has increased at a disturbing rate in recent years, and antiblack racism at the structural and interpersonal level is widely recognized as a contributing factor in this troubling trend (Kogan et al., 2024; Marraccini et al., 2023; Opara et al., 2020; Polanco-Roman et al., 2024).”
Achieving Equity in Child and Adolescent Mental Health by Addressing Racism Through Prevention Science
Goodrum, N. M., Cooper, D. K., Edmunds, S. R., Wippold, G. M., Bradshaw, J. L., Nguyen, J. K., Milburn, N. G., & Are, F. G. (2023) · Adversity and Resilience Science · doi:10.1007/s42844-023-00104-1 · Cited by 9
“For example, Opara et al. (2020) expanded the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide to incorporate intersectionality theory including consideration of risk and protective factors across multiple contextual levels.”
Suicide and Suicide Attempts During Adolescence
Esposito-Smythers, C. L., Whitmyre, E. D., Defayette, A. B., López, R., Maultsby, K. D., & Spirito, A. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818697-8.00059-5 · Cited by 5
Profiles of Risk for Self-injurious Thoughts and Behaviors Among System-Impacted Girls of Color
Sheehan, A. E., Bounoua, N., Rose, R. E., Sadeh, N., & Javdani, S. (2023) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2023.06.010 · Cited by 5
Machine learning to investigate policy-relevant social determinants of health and suicide rates in the United States
Xiao, Y., Meng, Y., Brown, T. T., Tsai, A. C., Snowden, L. R., Chow, J. C., Pathak, J., & Mann, J. J. (2025) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-025-00424-4 · Cited by 4
Perceived Racial Discrimination as a Risk Factor for Suicidal Ideation in Black College Students
Rule, A., Molock, S. D., Job, S., & Siff, L. (2025) · Journal of College Student Mental Health · doi:10.1080/28367138.2025.2502934 · Cited by 4
“From this theoretical standpoint, Black youth in particular may be experiencing key interpersonal-psychological components of suicide but may be doing so within a broader ecological system (Opara et al., 2020).”
School-Based Suicide Prevention through Gatekeeper Training: The Role of Natural Leaders
Exner‐Cortens, D., Baker, E. A., Conde, C. F., Bavel, M. V., Roy, M., & Pawluk, C. (2022) · Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health · doi:10.7870/cjcmh-2022-020 · Cited by 6
Adolescent firearm suicide risk patterns: A latent class analysis using U.S. National Violent Death Reporting System surveillance data, 2007–2017
Osborne, M. C., Brown, S., Culbreth, R. E., Lai, B. S., & Gilmore, A. K. (2021) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2021.106101 · Cited by 4
Black adolescents' racial discrimination and suicide behaviors: Testing perceived school safety as a protective moderator
Williams, C. D., Shipman-Lacewell, J. R., Shih, S., Wynn, A., Elias, M. D. J., & Valrie, C. R. (2023) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12877 · Cited by 4
Trapped in a Pathological Paradigm: Critiques of Suicidology Scholarship and Practice
Jackson‐Lowman, H., Chioneso, N. A., Utsey, S. O., & Williams, S. C. (2023) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984231169598 · Cited by 4
“Africana lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer youth (LGBTQ) often exhibited greater vulnerability to suicide attempts compared to other LGBTQ ethnoracial groups and heterosexual Africana youth (Chu et al., 2013; Opara et al., 2020).”
Background
Informing Equitable Prevention Practices: A Statewide Disaggregated Analysis of Suicide for Ethnoracially Minoritized Adolescents
Richardson, S. C., Williams, J. A., III, Vance, M. M., Phipps-Bennett, M., Stevenson, A. P., & Herbert, R. (2024) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-024-01654-1 · Cited by 4
“…comprehensive suicide prevention strategies, efforts for inclusive and intersectionality-informed research approaches must be realized, allowing for an understanding of the unique needs of diverse identities (Bath & Njoroge, 2021; Bridge, 2018; Opara et al., 2020; Polanco-Roman & Miranda, 2022).”
Background
Leadership Matters: Supporting the Mental Health Needs of Black and Latina/o Students in a Post COVID-19 World
Walker, L., Sullivan, M., & Stewart-Walker, N. (2022) · Journal of Educational Leadership in Action · doi:10.62608/2164-1102.1105 · Cited by 4
A Missing Link in Suicide Prevention and Intervention: Preparing the Bachelor of Social Work Workforce to Respond to Suicide in Practice
Sanford, R., Frey, L. M., & Maple, M. J. (2025) · Journal of Social Work Education · doi:10.1080/10437797.2025.2560822 · Cited by 3
“…closely with social work values and ethics, such as the social–ecological framework (Cramer & Kapusta, 2017), integrated model of IPTS and intersectionality (Opara et al., 2020), the cultural theory of suicide (Chu et al., 2010), and the social roots of suicide (Mueller et al., 2021) Upstream…”
Intersectional analysis of suicide risk among transgender and non-binary people
Santos, H., Bauer, G. R., Joiner, T. E., Surachman, A., Lê‐Scherban, F., & Scheim, A. I. (2025) · SSM - Mental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100496 · Cited by 6
Black youth suicide is not new: Early contributions, recent advancements, and remaining gaps in the field
Goodwill, J. R. (2025) · SSM - Mental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmmh.2025.100480 · Cited by 3
School Connectedness and Suicidal Ideation Among Black Youth: A Latent Class Analysis
Harrell, D. R., Richardson, S. C., & Sheftall, A. H. (2025) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-025-09778-7 · Cited by 4
“…face numerous stressors and behavioral challenges that heighten their risk for suicidal ideation and attempts, including adverse socio-economic conditions, experiences of racism and discrimination, family dysfunction, and delinquent behavior (CBC, 2019; Opara et al., 2020; Robinson et al., 2022).”
An Examination of Suicidal Behavior among Black College Students with Exposure to Police Violence
Szlyk, H. S., Motley, R., Joe, S., Nonas-Barnes, L., & Azasu, E. (2022) · Social Work · doi:10.1093/sw/swac046 · Cited by 3
20 years of studies of risk and intersectionality: a bibliometric overview
Nygren, K. G., Olofsson, A., & Öhman, S. (2024) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2024.2340023 · Cited by 5
“Intersectionality is in this cluster sometimes also framed as a critique towards the application of predominant theories of suicide as universally and their embeddedness in whiteness (see for example Opara et al. 2020; Sheftall & Miller 2021).”
Integrating a Strengths‐Based Intersectional Approach to the Study of Suicide Risk Among Black Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, and Questioning Youth
Taliaferro, L. A., Muehlenkamp, J. J., Price, M. N., Eden, T. M., Cook, S., Moore, K. L., Dvorak, R. D., & Schrimshaw, E. W. (2025) · Mental Health Science · doi:10.1002/mhs2.70025 · Cited by 2
Suicide Risk and Protective Factors Among Medicaid-Enrolled Black Youth With a Mental Health Diagnosis
Fontanella, C. A., Xia, X., Llamocca, E. N., Steelesmith, D. L., Brock, G. N., Xiao, Y., Bridge, J. A., Young, A. B., Campo, J. V., & Ruch, D. A. (2026) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.59657 · Cited by 2
Carrying Firearms and Suicide Risk Among Adolescents
Lindsey, M. A., Stephens, J. R. B., Singletary, B. D., McGuire, T. C., & Dixon, J. K. (2026) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2026.26924 · Cited by 2
From Trauma to Transformation: the Role of the Trauma Surgeon in the Care of Black Transgender Women
Motley, D., Forberg, P. L., Pagkas-Bather, J., Bouris, A. M., & Schneider, J. A. (2023) · Current Trauma Reports · doi:10.1007/s40719-023-00254-8 · Cited by 2
Preparing School Counselors for Culturally Informed Suicide Response
Brown, E., Edwin, M., & Purgason, L. L. (2024) · Teaching and Supervision in Counseling · doi:10.7290/tsc06kemk · Cited by 2
Ethnic Identity, Thwarted Belongingness, and Perceived Burdensomeness Among Latinx and Black Adolescents in the United States
Vélez‐Grau, C., McTernan, M. L., Lindsey, M. A., & Mufson, L. H. (2025) · Psychiatric Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1176/appi.prcp.20240111 · Cited by 2
Youth Gang Membership, Marginalized Identities, and Suicidality Disparities: Intersectional Implications for Research and Practice
Bishop, A. S., Nurius, P. S., Fleming, C. M., Klein, R. T., & Rousson, A. N. (2022) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-022-00902-z · Cited by 3
“Intersec-tionality theory explicitly calls attention to the underlying power structures and social determinants that produce health inequalities, and research is needed to identify the structural and environmental factors associated with adolescent suicide (e.g., Opara et al., 2020).”
The Role of Protective Factors in Moderating the Association Between Racism and Suicidal Ideation or Depression Among Rural Black Youth: A Scoping Review
Pestaner, M. C., Crumb, L., Crowe, A., & Cuthrell, K. (2024) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x231222032 · Cited by 2
“As such, research is needed on the intersection of contextual risk and protective factors for Black youth (Bennett & Joe, 2015) to facilitate the development of culturally relevant suicide risk interventions tailored to the contextual needs of Black youth (Opara et al., 2020).”
Suicide Prevention Research from Individual to Social Approach
Uludağ, Z., Daşçı, E., & Keleş, A. E. (2024) · Psikiyatride Guncel Yaklasimlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry · doi:10.18863/pgy.1506867 · Cited by 1
Development and Validation of the Counselor Beliefs About Cultural Impact on Suicidality Scale
Edwin, M., Brown, E., Belcher, L. T., & Ashrafabadi, F. (2025) · Professional School Counseling · doi:10.1177/2156759x251315411 · Cited by 1
“Opara et al. (2020) provided an integrated model of intersectionality theory (Crenshaw, 1991) and the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicide (Joiner, 2005) to examine suicide among Black children.”
Educational cultural visionaries: how BlackQueer adults mentor, embrace, and love on BlackQueer youth
Webb, J. M. (2025) · International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education · doi:10.1080/09518398.2025.2470935 · Cited by 1
Marginalization from COVID-19 Anti-Asian Racism and Smoking among Asian American Emerging Adults
Wong, M. J., Keum, B. T., Xie, L., & Na, J. Y. (2025) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-025-09443-3 · Cited by 1
“…(IPTS) to understand how racial discrimination (i.e., negative or traumatic social event) may be linked to feelings of unmet social needs (thwarted belongingness) and feelings of being a burden to others in society (perceived burdensomeness; Keum, 2023; Keum & Wong, 2023; Opara et al., 2020).”
Examining Pathways Among Teen Dating Violence, Substance Use, and Suicidal Ideation Among Black Girls: A Cross-Sectional Study
Opara, I., Weerakoon, S. M., Srikanth, N., Brooks, J. R., Wan, X., & Willie, T. C. (2025) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605251353484 · Cited by 1
“Opara et al. (2020) developed an integrated framework to explain suicide ideation and death by suicide among Black children using Intersectionality Theory (Crenshaw, 1991) and the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide (Joiner, 2005).”
Self-citation
Caregiver and Birth Parent Influences on Depression and Anxiety in African American Children in Kinship Care
Washington, T., Coley, S. L., Blakey, J. M., Walton, Q. L., Labban, J. D., Tadese, H. B., Martinez, D. N., & Leathers, S. J. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13162025 · Cited by 2
“In one study, 41% of Black adolescents reported trauma linked to anxiety and depression [7].”
Breaking the silence on suicide among pre-adolescent children
Muwanguzi, M., Kule, M., Ataryeba, H., Rukundo, G. Z., Harms, S., & Kaggwa, M. M. (2025) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-025-00999-x · Cited by 1
Performing Strength: Racialized Masculinity in the Lived Experiences of Black Men at Risk of Suicide
Adams, L. B., DeVinney, A., Aljuboori, D., Bachman, S., Lateef, H. A., Habteyesus, A. N., & Willie, T. C. (2026) · American Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.1177/15579883251408351 · Cited by 1
“Extant scholarship challenges this narrow lens, emphasizing the importance of applying an intersectional framework in understanding suicide risk for Black Americans (Canetto, 2021; Opara et al., 2020; Standley, 2022; Wiglesworth et al., 2022).”

Authors: Opara, I., Assan, M. A., Pierre, K., Gunn, J. F., Metzger, I., Hamilton, J., & Arugu, E.
Affiliations: Stony Brook University (US)
Public Health Management Corporation (US)
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
University of Georgia (US)
Columbia University (US)
Corresponding author: Opara, Ijeoma
ORCID: Opara, Ijeoma
Pierre, Kimberly
Gunn, John F.
Metzger, Isha
Venue: Journal of Black Studies
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2020-06-15
Volume: 51
Issue: 6
Pages: 611-631
ISSN: 0021-9347 (ISSN-L)
1552-4566
DOI: 10.1177/0021934720935641
PMC: PMC8301214
OpenAlex: W3035132964
Semantic Scholar: 8c83ed33a7ceb30dd6f9b8b6c302707286e34cd3
Cited by: 136
References: 64
Citations by year: 2026: 14 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 1
FWCI: 7.46
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Black Studies (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R25MH087217)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › LGBTQ Health, Identity, and Policy
Keywords: child suicide, Black children, interpersonal theory of suicide, intersectionality, suicide prevention, racial discrimination, socioeconomic status, sexual and gender minority youth, mental health, culturally sensitive interventions, suicide risk factors

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Suicide among Black Children: An Integrated Model of the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide and Intersectionality Theory for Researchers and Clinicians

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