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Cited by 69LGBTQ Health, Identity, and PolicySuicide and Self-Harm StudiesRacial and Ethnic Identity Research

Intersecting Structural Oppression and Suicidality Among Black Sexual Minority Male Adolescents and Emerging Adults

Open access
English, Devin, Boone, Cheriko A., Carter, Joseph A., Talan, Ali J., Busby, Danielle R., Moody, Raymond L., Cunningham, Diamond J., Bowleg, Lisa +1 more·2022·Journal of Research on Adolescence
DOI 10.1111/jora.12726PMC PMC9047029
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Abstract

This study examined associations between structural racism, anti‐LGBTQ policies, and suicide risk among young sexual minority men (SMM). Participants were a 2017–2018 Internet‐based U.S. national sample of 497 Black and 1536 White SMM (ages 16–25). Structural equation modeling tested associations from indicators of structural racism, anti‐LGBTQ policies, and their interaction to suicide risk factors. For Black participants, structural racism and anti‐LGBTQ policies were significantly positively associated with depressive symptoms, heavy drinking, perceived burdensomeness, thwarted belongingness, self‐harm, and suicide attempt. There were significant interaction effects: Positive associations between structural racism and several outcomes were stronger for Black participants in high anti‐LGBTQ policy states. Structural racism, anti‐LGBTQ policies, and their interaction were not significantly associated with suicide risk for White SMM.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/jora.12726

Cites

87 of 87 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 31 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Among Black sexual minority male adolescents and emerging adults, the interaction between state-level structural racism and anti-LGBTQ policies was positively associated with suicide attempt.

    “suicide attempt (β=0.88, S.E.=0.45, p=0.05)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The missing data in the study were missing at random.
  • Findingown data

    In the sample of Black sexual minority male adolescents and emerging adults, state-level anti-LGBTQ policies showed a positive association with perceived burdensomeness.

    “perceived burdensomeness (β=0.88, S.E.=0.22, p<0.001)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The missing data in the study were missing at random.
  • Findingown data

    In the sample of Black sexual minority male adolescents and emerging adults, state-level structural racism showed a positive association with perceived burdensomeness.

    “perceived burdensomeness (β=0.73, S.E.=0.22, p=0.001)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The missing data in the study were missing at random.
  • Findingown data

    The model constraining the hypothesized pathways to be equal across Black and White participants fit significantly worse than the freely estimated model.

    “The multigroup chi-square difference test showed that the model with the hypothesized pathways constrained across White and Black participants led to a significant decrement in model fit from the freely estimated model, Δχ2 (21) = 76.86, p < 0.001.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The missing data in the study were missing at random.
  • Findingown data

    Among Black sexual minority male adolescents and emerging adults, the three-way interaction of structural racism, anti-LGBTQ policies, and age was significantly associated with heavy drinking.

    “Lastly, exploratory age moderation models showed that the structural racism x age (β=−0.74, S.E.=0.28, p=0.008) and structural racism x anti-LGBTQ policies x age (β=−0.66, S.E.=0.26, p=0.01) interaction terms were significantly associated with heavy drinking.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The missing data in the study were missing at random.
  • May combine two claims. 12
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For White sexual minority male adolescents and emerging adults, neither structural racism, anti-LGBTQ policies, nor their interaction was significantly associated with any suicide risk outcome.

    “Neither of the oppression variables nor their interaction were significantly associated with suicide risk for White SMM.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The missing data in the study were missing at random.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The analysis yielded separate and joint links between structural oppression and two interpersonal suicide risk factors: thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness.

    “this is the first study, to our knowledge, to show both independent and conjoint associations between structural oppression and interpersonal risk factors for suicide (i.e., thwarted belongingness, perceived burdensomeness)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Among younger Black sexual minority male adolescents and emerging adults living in states with high anti-LGBTQ policies, structural racism was positively associated with heavy drinking, but this association was not significant in other age and policy groups.

    “Simple slopes showed that for younger Black SMM facing high anti-LGBTQ policies, structural racism was positively associated with heavy drinking (b=0.34, S.E.=0.12, p=0.004), but not for younger Black SMM facing low anti-LGBTQ policies (b=−0.01, S.E.=0.03, p=0.79), older Black SMM facing low anti-LGBTQ policies (b=−0.01, S.E.=0.03, p=0.79), or older Black SMM facing high anti-LGBTQ policies (b=−0.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The missing data in the study were missing at random.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The study found a link between anti-LGBTQ policies and suicidal thoughts, but no link with structural racism.

    “particularly for suicidal ideation which we found was associated with anti-LGBTQ policies, but not structural racism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    Intersectionality frameworks posit that multiple interlocking systems of oppression operating at the social-structural level produce and exacerbate health inequalities at intersecting social positions.

    “A central posit of intersectionality is that, through factors that operate at the social-structural level, multiple interlocking systems of oppression (e.g., racism, heterosexism, ageism) produce and exacerbate social, economic, and health inequalities at intersecting social positions (e.g., race and gender and sexual identity and age).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bowleg, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Collins, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Crenshaw, 1989

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The study clustered observations by state to adjust standard errors and chi-square statistics for non-independence due to geographic nesting.

    “We clustered observations by state using the CLUSTER command to adjust standard errors and chi-square statistics that result from non-independence linked to nesting within geographic area.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The missing data in the study were missing at random.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The City University of New York Institutional Review Board approved all study procedures.

    “The City University of New York Institutional Review Board approved all study procedures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    All models adjusted for a set of contextual and individual covariates.

    “All models adjusted for theoretically meaningful contextual and individual covariates (i.e., rural-urban classification, subjective SES, income, formal employment status, housing instability, age, sexual identity, relationship status, living situation, whether participants have living parents/stepparents and are in contact with them, insurance coverage, and military experience).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The missing data in the study were missing at random.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Structural racism is associated with adverse health outcomes, including fatal police shootings, access to health care, myocardial infarction, adverse birth outcomes, body mass index, and circulatory disease-related deaths, among Black U.S. Americans.

    “studies have found links between state- and county-level structural racism (e.g., White-Black inequities in housing, education, and incarceration) and racial inequities in fatal police shootings (Mesic et al., 2018), access to health care (Leitner, Hehman, Ayduk, & Mendoza-Denton, 2016), myocardial infarction (Lukachko, Hatzenbuehler, & Keyes, 2014)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Mesic et al., 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Leitner, Hehman, Ayduk, & Mendoza-Denton, 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Lukachko, Hatzenbuehler, & Keyes, 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Racist and anti-LGBTQ policies are independently and synergistically associated with suicide risk factors among young Black sexual minority men.

    “this study provides evidence that racist and anti-LGBTQ policies are independently and synergistically associated with suicide risk factors among young Black SMM.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The missing data in the study were missing at random.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The differing associations underscore that intersectionality is needed when studying suicidality in sexual minority groups, and that structural oppression can raise suicide risk according to multiple social positions.

    “These differences in associations reveal the critical importance of investigating suicidality among sexual minority communities through the lens of intersectionality and recognizing that forms of structural oppression may confer higher risk for suicide based upon multiple axes of social position.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Black sexual minority males are more likely to encounter discrimination, harassment, or violence because their racial and sexual minority identities are visible and linked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The study used full information maximum likelihood estimation to handle missing data.

    “We used full information maximum likelihood estimation to account for missing data under the assumption they were missing at random (Willett, Sayer, Schumacher, & Marcoulides, 1996), which was tenable given missingness patterns were not associated with our independent variables and there was no reason to expect systematic differences in our dependent variables based on missingness patterns (Bhask”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Willett, Sayer, Schumacher, & Marcoulides, 1996

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: The missing data in the study were missing at random.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Young Black sexual minority boys and men experience bullying victimization and suicidality at two to six times the rates of their heterosexual counterparts.

    “bullying victimization and suicidality is two to six times higher than their heterosexual counterparts (Mueller, James, Abrutyn, & Levin, 2015; O’Donnell, Meyer, & Schwartz, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Mueller, James, Abrutyn, & Levin, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites O’Donnell, Meyer, & Schwartz, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The factor structure of the measured variables was equivalent across Black and White participants, providing evidence of configural invariance.

    “Because CFAs indicated the equivalence of the factor structure for all variables across Black and White participants, we found evidence for configural invariance across race for these variables.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The missing data in the study were missing at random.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Many state legislatures are advancing anti-LGBTQ laws that tend to place disproportionate harm on LGBTQ youth of color.

    “These are particularly important during a year in which dozens of state legislatures are pursuing anti-LGBTQ policies (Ronan, 2021) that, in line with the present results, often disproportionately harm LGBTQ youth of color (Movement Advancement Project & Center for American Progress, 2016, 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ronan, 2021

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Movement Advancement Project & Center for American Progress, 2016, 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Although the structural racism and anti-LGBTQ policy indices were related, they cannot be directly compared: one uses specific policy positions, the other proximal policy-climate indicators.

    “In this way, the structural racism and anti-LGBTQ policies indices were related, but not directly comparable because the latter is based on specific policy positions (e.g., allowing conversion therapy), while the former is based on proximal climate indicators of policies (e.g., Black-White education inequities).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This study indicates that young Black sexual minority males might gain especially from structural prevention efforts, alongside individual, family, and community interventions in early adolescence and childhood.

    “the current study suggests that young Black SMM may especially benefit from structural prevention interventions, in addition to those individual-, family-, and community-level interventions implemented during early adolescence and childhood.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Prior work indicates that substance-use disparities do not explain the elevated suicide risk among young Black sexual minority males.

    “research has found that increased risk for suicide among young Black SMM is not accounted for by inequities in substance use (O’Donnell et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites O’Donnell et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Prevention policies delivered in childhood and early adolescence might best reduce how structural racism and anti-LGBTQ policies affect young Black sexual minority males.

    “As such, policy-level prevention intervention during early adolscence and childhood may be most effective in reducing the impacts of structural racism and anti-LGBTQ policies on young Black SMM.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationown data

    Taken together, the results support removing racist and anti-LGBTQ laws as key public health measures to lower suicide among young Black sexual minority males.

    “Overall, our findings support eliminating racist and anti-LGBTQ policies as essential public health interventions to reduce the rising tide of suicide among young Black SMM.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The anti-LGBTQ policy measure used the 2018 HRC index, while structural racism was measured with the State Racism Index for 2010-2015, so their time periods did not match.

    “it is worth noting that the period of time covered by the 2018 HRC index used to measure anti-LGBTQ policies differed from the period of time (2010–2015) for the State Racism Index used to measure structural racism with census and government data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Policy conditions and structural oppression tend to remain stable over time.

    “while policies and structural oppression are often highly consistent across time (Hardeman et al., 2018)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hardeman et al., 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The anti-LGBTQ policy variable was fairly crude because several policies were collapsed into one dichotomous measure.

    “Similarly, in combining several policies into a single dichotomous measure, our anti-LGBTQ policies variables was relatively crude.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Some policies in the anti-LGBTQ measure might not have affected all study participants equally across intersectional positions.

    “not all policies (e.g., transgender and gender expansive-exclusion laws) may have specifically targeted participants in this study equally across all intersectional social positions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Earlier studies point to possible protective factors against suicide risk for young sexual minority males, such as LGBTQ-positive messages, family acceptance, peer support, and affirming school settings.

    “Prior research highlights factors that may potentially protect young SMM from suicide risk, including exposure to positive LGBTQ messages, family acceptance, peer support, and LGBTQ-affirmative school environments (Luong, Rew, & Banner, 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Luong, Rew, & Banner, 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

25 of 25

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The missing data in the study were missing at random.

    “under the assumption they were missing at random (Willett, Sayer, Schumacher, & Marcoulides, 1996)”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Black sexual minority males are more likely to encounter discrimination, harassment, or violence because their racial and sexual minority identities are visible and linked.

    “Additionally, Black SMM are more likely to encounter people who will discriminate against them, harass, or enact violence against them due to the visibility of their racial identity and their sexual minority status—which are inextricably linked.”
2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Studies have examined the impact of more supportive school climate and same-sex marriage policies in reducing suicidal ideation and attempts, demonstrating analytic strategies linking macro and meso-level context to individual outcomes.

    “Studies in this area have examined the impact of more supportive school climate and same-sex marriage policies in reducing suicidal ideation and attempts, thus demonstrating analytic strategies linking macro and meso-level context to individual outcomes (102–104).”

    From Structural Racism and Suicide Prevention for Ethnoracially Minoritized Youth: A Conceptual Framework and Illustration Across Systems (2022) · cites this paper as [103]

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentχ²(21) = 76.86reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ2 (21) = 76.86, p < .001”

1 of 1

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Abstract overstates the anti-LGBTQ policy finding for heavy drinking

    Minor

    The abstract says both structural racism and anti-LGBTQ policies had significant positive associations with heavy drinking. The discussion specifies that the independent heavy-drinking association was for structural racism only.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 11

  1. Adler N., 2007, The MacArthur scale of subjective social status
  2. American Public Health Association, 2021, Racism is a public health crisis – Map of declarations
  3. Asparouhov T., 2006, Robust chi square difference testing with mean and variance adjusted test statistics, Matrix, 1, 1
  4. Hunt J., 2012, The unfair criminalization of gay and transgender youth: An overview of the experiences of LGBT youth in the juvenile justice system, Center for American Progress, 29, 1
  5. Joiner T. E., 2005, Why people die by suicide, 10
  6. Movement Advancement Project & Center for American Progress, 2016, Unjust: How the broken criminal justice system fails LGBT people of color
  7. Movement Advancement Project & Center for American Progress, 2017, Unjust: LGBTQ youth incarcerated in the juvenile justice system
  8. Quintana N. S., 2010, On the streets: The federal response to gay and transgender homeless youth
  9. Ronan W., 2021, 8 bills across 7 states: Coordinated anti‐transgender, anti‐LGBTQ legislative push ramps up in state houses across the country
  10. Warbelow S., 2018, 2018 State Equality Index, Human Rights Campaign Foundation
  11. Willett J. B., 1996, Advanced structural equation modeling techniques

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
English, D., Boone, C. A., Carter, J. A., Talan, A. J., Busby, D. R., Moody, R. L., Cunningham, D. J., Bowleg, L., & Rendina, H. J.
Affiliations
  • Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
  • George Washington University (US)
  • The Graduate Center, CUNY (US)
  • Whitman-Walker Health (US)
  • The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston (US)
  • Columbia University (US)
  • Tulane University (US)
Corresponding author
English, Devin
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Research on Adolescence
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2022-02-15
Volume
32
Issue
1
Pages
226-243
ISSN
  • 1050-8392 (ISSN-L)
  • 1532-7795
DOI
10.1111/jora.12726
PMC
PMC9047029
OpenAlex
W4212963445
Cited by
68
References
87
Citations by year
2026: 17 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 9
FWCI
12.04
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations
  • Journal of Research on Adolescence (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Institute of Mental Health (K01MH118091)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › LGBTQ Health, Identity, and Policy
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Keywords
structural racism, suicide risk, Black sexual minority men, depressive symptoms, heavy drinking, perceived burdensomeness, thwarted belongingness, self-harm, suicide attempts, intersectionality
MeSH terms
Sexual and Gender Minorities, Adolescent, Adult, Humans, Male, Race Relations, Suicide, Suicide, Attempted, Young Adult, Suicidal Ideation

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