The DOI matches its Crossref record; 87 of the 87 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 1 of the 28 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
The Social Construction of Illness: Key Insights and Policy Implications
Abstract
The social construction of illness is a major research perspective in medical sociology. This article traces the roots of this perspective and presents three overarching constructionist findings. First, some illnesses are particularly embedded with cultural meaning—which is not directly derived from the nature of the condition—that shapes how society responds to those afflicted and influences the experience of that illness. Second, all illnesses are socially constructed at the experiential level, based on how individuals come to understand and live with their illness. Third, medical knowledge about illness and disease is not necessarily given by nature but is constructed and developed by claims-makers and interested parties. We address central policy implications of each of these findings and discuss fruitful directions for policy-relevant research in a social constructionist tradition. Social constructionism provides an important counterpoint to medicine’s largely deterministic approaches to disease and illness, and it can help us broaden policy deliberations and decisions.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This article reviews the social construction of illness perspective in medical sociology, tracing its roots and synthesizing three key findings: cultural meanings of illness, the socially constructed illness experience, and socially constructed medical knowledge. It argues these findings have policy implications and can broaden policy deliberations by countering medicine’s largely deterministic approaches.
Key findings
- Some illnesses carry cultural meanings not directly derived from biology, shaping social responses and the experience of illness; examples include stigmatized illnesses (e.g., epilepsy, HIV/AIDS), contested illnesses (e.g., chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, multiple chemical sensitivity), and disability as socially constructed. Policy implication: shift emphasis from biomedically fixing individuals toward changing the social and cultural context that gives illnesses negative meaning.
- All illnesses are socially constructed at the experiential level: people enact illness, construct identity, and manage daily life. Research uses in-depth interviews and insider views; Charmaz describes how chronic illness can shrink worlds, and millions of American women identify as breast cancer survivors and activists. Policy implications include moving from “compliance” to context-centered strategies, using illness narratives in pain management, and addressing lay knowledge and illness identities.
- Medical knowledge is socially constructed by claims-makers and interested parties. Feminist, science studies, and medicalization research show how medical ideas can reproduce gender, class, and racial-ethnic inequality and how diagnoses and markets expand—e.g., male impotence was renamed “erectile dysfunction” in the late 1990s, the FDA approved Viagra in 1998, and Pfizer marketed it to a broader audience. Policy implication: critically examine how problems are framed, because definitions shape policy and can authorize social control.
Methods
- Design: conceptual/review article, not an empirical study; it traces intellectual roots and synthesizes constructionist literature over the last 50 years.
- Data/sample: no original data or sample; it draws on prior sociological, historical, and feminist scholarship and case examples.
- Analysis: organizes key findings under three themes—cultural meanings of illness, illness experience, and medical knowledge—then discusses policy implications and future research directions.
Limitations
- The paper states it does not showcase criticisms of social constructionism, though it acknowledges important critiques: that it may deny the natural world, ignore whether some ideas better represent the world, and reproduce a false binary between real and socially constructed (Hacking 1999). It also notes criticisms/limitations of the disease/illness distinction (Timmermans and Haas 2008) and states its amalgam approach “minimizes important differences between various types of social constructionism.”
- Evident from the text: as a review/essay, it presents no systematic review protocol, no empirical data, and no tested policy outcomes; policy implications are illustrative and drawn from cited literature rather than evaluated here.
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Claims the paper makes
13 Sources not found · 3 Own interpretation · 3 No basis given · 2 No full text of the sources · 2 Not checked yet · 1 Partly supported · accuracy not yet measured
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Second, all illnesses are socially constructed at the experiential level, based on how individuals come to understand and live with their illness.”
- Also stated in: § Illness Experience as Socially Constructed · p. 5 · plain
“Another key insight of constructionism is that the illness experience is socially constructed.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Charmaz 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bury 1982 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Illness Experience as Socially Constructed · p. 5 · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Third, medical knowledge about illness and disease is not necessarily given by nature but is constructed and developed by claims-makers and interested parties.”
- Also stated in: § Medical Knowledge as Socially Constructed · p. 7 · hedged
“Eliot Freidson (1970) was probably the first medical sociologist to articulate how medical knowledge is socially constructed.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Freidson 1970
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Foucault 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Medical Knowledge as Socially Constructed · p. 7 · hedged
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The research of medical sociologists in the subfield of science studies also reveals how medical knowledge is conditioned by the social context in which it is developed.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Joyce 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Timmermans 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Likewise, the engines of medicalization have expanded beyond medical professionals, social movements, and organizations to biotechnology, consumers, and the insurance industry.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In an earlier book, Epstein (1996) similarly underscored the politics of knowledge by demonstrating how the science regarding the cause and treatment of HIV/AIDS is best understood as an amalgam that was constructed and contested by different constituencies (e.g., scientists, doctors, drug companies, patients, and activists) rather than the outcome of 'pure' science.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Epstein 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“Even as this new paradigm offers potential tools for addressing nagging questions about health disparities-e.g., why do black women with breast cancer have higher mortality rates than their white counterparts?-it has the consequence of reifying the categories of race and gender as biological realities.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Epstein 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“In a recent book Epstein (2007) analyzes the emergence, beginning in the mid-1980s, of a new paradigm of biomedical research that proactively included individuals from underrepresented social groups (e.g., women and racial and ethnic minorities) in clinical studies, with an eye toward understanding the differences between groups with respect to disease processes and treatment outcomes.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Epstein 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Epstein explains how the knowledge it produces about race and gender are in part the outcome of social and political conflicts and negotiations, as opposed to essential truths found in nature.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Epstein 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Over the years, sociologists have shown that women's natural reproductive functions (e.g., pregnancy, childbirth, menstruation) are routinely medicalized (Barker 1998; Riessman 1983; Riska 2003).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Barker 1998 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Riessman 1983
- Not matchedcites Riska 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When medical perspectives increasingly define obesity as an illness (rather than a risk factor for diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, etc.), policies focus on solutions such as gastric bypass surgeries, rather than examining the role of product promotion by the food industry or the availability of healthy foods in neighborhoods with high rates of obesity.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 7
- Probably not a substantial claim. 5
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“First, some illnesses are particularly embedded with cultural meaning-which is not directly derived from the nature of the condition-that shapes how society responds to those afflicted and influences the experience of that illness.”
- Also stated in: § Cultural Meanings of Illness · p. 3 · plain
“certain illnesses have particular social or cultural meanings attributed to them. These meanings adhere to the illness and may have independent consequences on patients and health care.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sontag 1978
- Partly supportedcites Barry et al. 2009 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The introductory discussion of illness metaphors and the “Reasoning by Metaphor” section show how meanings attached to health conditions shape public attitudes and policy responses. The “Obesity Metaphors” section also describes how people who are overweight may be treated badly in work and social settings. The paper does not establish the broader claim that such meanings are independent of a condition’s nature or generally shape the experience of illness. Page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Cultural Meanings of Illness · p. 3 · plain
In the paper
“A social constructionist approach to illness is rooted in the widely recognized conceptual distinction between disease (the biological condition) and illness (the social meaning of the condition) (Eisenberg 1977).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Eisenberg 1977 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Contested illnesses, including chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome, and multiple chemical sensitivity are medically suspect because they are not associated with any known physical abnormality.”
- Also stated in: § Cultural Meanings of Illness · p. 4 · plain
“contested illness sufferers are burdened by the cultural meaning of a medically invisible condition in an era of high-tech biomedicine”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Barker 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Brown 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kroll-Smith and Floyd 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Cultural Meanings of Illness · p. 4 · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Because the attributes that are deemed disabilities, and the very meaning of being disabled, vary across time and space, disability cannot be reduced to a mere biological problem located in an individual's body”
- Also stated in: § Cultural Meanings of Illness · p. 4 · plain
“the body has an impairment (e.g., loss of limb) while society creates the disability”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Barnes, Mercer, and Shakespeare 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Oliver 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Cultural Meanings of Illness · p. 4 · plain
In the paper
“there is nothing inherent about a condition that makes it stigmatizing; rather, it is the social response to the condition and some of its manifestations, or the type of individuals who suffer from it, that make a condition stigmatized”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Conrad 1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The emphasis is on how meanings of phenomena do not necessarily inhere in the phenomena themselves but develop through interaction in a social context.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Berger and Luckman 1966
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“After all, any policy response to a problem is determined by how the problem is defined or framed in the first place.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Warnings about the risks of fetal alcohol syndrome effectively blame individual women and deflect attention away from the well-established links among class, race, and birth outcomes (Armstrong 2003).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Armstrong 2003
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Both the boundaries of the ED diagnosis and the markets for ED drugs expanded enormously (Conrad 2007).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Conrad 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“When the solution is to mandate that federally funded clinical studies include individuals from underrepresented subgroups, we inadvertently cast the problem as rooted in biological differences between racial and ethnic groups and downplay the role of socially structured inequalities (Epstein 2007).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Epstein 2007
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, Prempro, a widely prescribed hormone replacement drug, is just the latest in the ongoing effort to medically 'treat' menopausal 'symptoms,' despite the fact that changes associated with menopause are a common and ordinary aspect of women's reproductive lives.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: Changes associated with menopause are a common and ordinary aspect of women's reproductive lives.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Framing anger in women as evidence of the disease PMS, to be treated with antidepressants, trivializes the impact of gender inequality on women's daily lives.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper relies on this without support.
Changes associated with menopause are a common and ordinary aspect of women's reproductive lives.
“despite the fact that changes associated with menopause are a common and ordinary aspect of women's reproductive lives.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There is a social predilection toward treating human problems as individual or clinical rather than addressing the underlying causes for complex social problems and human suffering.
“It seems that we have a social predilection toward treating human problems as individual or clinical—whether it be obesity, substance abuse, learning difficulties, aging, or alcoholism—rather than addressing the underlying causes for complex social problems and human suffering.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Compared to 50 years ago, physicians have experienced a relative decline in professional authority.
“Compared to 50 years ago, physicians have experienced a relative decline in professional authority.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Laypeople with illness have a greater voice, and there is greater recognition of that voice.
“Both reflecting and reinforcing this trend, laypeople with illness have a greater voice, and there is also greater recognition of that voice.”
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“The study used an interpretive approach (Conrad and Barker 2010) informed by the work of Charmaz (2006).”
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“Previous studies demonstrated that individuals with chronic diseases such as diabetes [44], cancer [45], physical disabilities [46], and psychiatric illness [47] had disease-related stigma, such as being rejected and discriminated against.”
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“These works led to better understanding social actors’ role in the medicalisation process using ‘social actor theory’ (Abraham, 2010; Barker, 2008; Conrad & Barker, 2010; Halfmann, 2012; Malacrida, 2002; Malacrida, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodWell-Being across the Life Course
Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289.021 · Cited by 8
Horwitz, A. V. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289.004 · Cited by 8
Harper, I., Broom, A. F., & Kenny, K. (2024) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/10497323241304571 · Cited by 7
“…the economic, medical, and social barriers to receiving care that exist for all with chronic illness, and especially for those at the intersection of other minoritized identities (Boulton, 2019; Conrad & Barker, 2010; Frickel et al., 2010; Knoebel et al., 2021; Mullard et al., 2024; Sebring, 2021).”
Halpin, M., & Cortez, D. (2025) · Theory and Society · doi:10.1007/s11186-025-09611-9 · Cited by 8
“Theories of medicalization (Conrad, 2005; Conrad & Barker, 2010; Conrad & Schneider, 2010), biomedicalization (Clarke et al., 2010), and pharmaceuticalization (Abraham, 2010; Busfield, 2006; Williams et al., 2011) aim to explain the expanding reach of health, illness, and medicine.”
Atiim, G. A., Elliott, S. J., & Clarke, A. E. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.03.031 · Cited by 7
“So maybe if we have a local name that everyone understands […] that will help a lot - Ama, mother of allergic boy As Conrad and Barker (2010) argued, disease conditis do not necessarily inhere in themselves but arise through interactions in place.”
BackgroundThick Bodies, Thick Skins: Reflections on Two Decades of Sociology in Fat Studies
Ingraham, N., & Boero, N. C. (2019) · Fat Studies · doi:10.1080/21604851.2019.1629262 · Cited by 7
“Indeed, the social construction of health and illness has long been a key branch of medical sociology though it is telling that at the time, “obesity” as a social construct was not yet a significant object of study within medical sociology (Conrad and Barker 2010).”
BackgroundOrthorexia Nervosa: The Medicalization of Extreme Healthy Eating Practices
Fixsen, A. M., & Cheshire, A. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83745-7_7 · Cited by 7
“The medicalization of eating The social construction of medicine concerns the processes by which certain behaviors and experiences come to be defined as medical conditions (Conrad & Barker, 2010).”
BackgroundCulture, Diversity, and Global Health: Challenges and Opportunities
Gopalkrishnan, N. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-45009-0_5 · Cited by 7
McLeod, J. D., Erving, C. L., & Caputo, J. (2014) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9002-4_28 · Cited by 6
Baffoe-Bonnie, M. S. (2022) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115353 · Cited by 8
Dun, S., & Rachdi, H. (2023) · Journal of Islamic marketing · doi:10.1108/jima-11-2022-0294 · Cited by 7
Robinson, K. M., & Monsivais, J. J. (2012) · ISRN Pain · doi:10.1155/2013/401732 · Cited by 7
Teaching Clinical Judgment: a Review with Consideration of Applications for Health Professions
Gaba, A. (2015) · The Open Nutrition Journal · doi:10.2174/1876396001509010053 · Cited by 7
“The educational pioneer John Dewey [16] described the concept of reflection as " the active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further consideration to which it tends " .”
BackgroundB. F. Skinner's Science and Human Behavior: Some Further Consequences
Goddard, M. J. (2017) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/gpr0000117 · Cited by 7
“Conrad and Barker (2010) suggested that a troubling aspect of medicalization is that it may overstate medical solutions (particularly pharmaceutical solutions) and may understate social or environmental solutions to complex human problems (see also Mayes & Horwitz, 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialDefining Mental Disorders: Sociological Investigations into the Classification of Mental Disorders
Whooley, O. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289.006 · Cited by 7
The Stigma of Diseases: Unequal Burden, Uneven DeclinePreprint
Best, R. K., & Arseniev‐Koehler, A. (2022) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/7nm9x · Cited by 7
Social Construction of Mental Illness
Thompson, M. (2021) · The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology · doi:10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosm141.pub2 · Cited by 7
Mishra, A. J., & Sharma, S. (2022) · Journal of Health Management · doi:10.1177/09720634221112136 · Cited by 6
“We have analysed results of the present study based on the premise that labelling is a form of social construction of illness in which illness experiences are prefixed with an adjective and are, therefore, objectified in the society (Conrad & Barker, 2010; Friedson, 1970).”
BackgroundAsamoah, P., Abokyi, S. N., & Nunfam, V. F. (2024) · Cogent Mental Health · doi:10.1080/28324765.2024.2382182 · Cited by 6
“Cultural constructions of illness (Conrad & Barker, 2010) affect perception, experience, and management (Helman, 2001) of mental illness.”
Rojas, P. (2015) · Saúde e Sociedade · doi:10.1590/s0104-12902015s01011 · Cited by 6
La viruela y las políticas de inmunización en Argentina en el largo plazo
Liscia, M. S. D. (2021) · Topoi (Rio de Janeiro) · doi:10.1590/2237-101x02204804 · Cited by 6
Community Perspectives on Hearing Loss in Rural Alaska
Inglis-Jenson, M., Robler, S. K., Gallo, J. J., Ivanoff, P., Ryan, S., Hofstetter, P., & Emmett, S. D. (2023) · Ear and Hearing · doi:10.1097/aud.0000000000001348 · Cited by 6
Sirotiak, Z., & Thomas, E. B. K. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-08248-2 · Cited by 6
“…men and women with ME/CFS. Historically, medical conditions without known causes or treatments have been widely viewed as psychiatric in origin (Conrad & Barker, 2010). individuals with ME/CFS identify as a person with a dis - ability, ME/CFS as a condition can be disabling, resulting in…”
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Bronfenbrenner's Ecology of Human Development
Denis, C. M. (2012) · Cited by 6
Being at the center of attention: Iranian women's experience after suicide attempts
Azizpour, M., Taghizadeh, Z., Mohammadi, N., et al. (2018) · Perspectives In Psychiatric Care · doi:10.1111/ppc.12337 · Cited by 6
Potter, D. A. (2021) · Sociological Forum · doi:10.1111/socf.12721 · Cited by 6
Rothpletz‐Puglia, P., Fredericks, L., Dreker, M. R., Patusco, R., & Ziegler, J. (2022) · Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2021.09.007 · Cited by 6
“15,16”
BackgroundZafar, A., Baessler, F., Ihrig, A., Mayer, G., Bugaj, T. J., Maatouk, I., Stäudle, J., Friederich, H., & Schultz, J. (2022) · Aging and Cancer · doi:10.1002/aac2.12059 · Cited by 7
Robin, D., Albermann, K., & Dratva, J. (2023) · Prävention und Gesundheitsförderung · doi:10.1007/s11553-022-01008-1 · Cited by 6
“Zu nennen sind etwa schulische Leistungserwartungen [5], immer größer werdende Klassenstrukturen [10], politische Umstrukturierungen in der Schweizer Schulentwicklung der letzten 20 Jahre [16] oder – aktuell – die Bewältigung der Coronapandemie und ihre Folgen [34, 38].”
BackgroundUnmet Needs in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Metasynthesis Protocol
Disler, R. T., Green, A., Luckett, T., Newton, P., Inglis, S., Currow, D., & Davidson, P. (2012) · International Journal of Research in Nursing · doi:10.3844/ijrnsp.2012.15.20 · Cited by 7
HIV/AIDS and women: African and South African perspectives
Kasiram, M., Ngcobo, N., Oliphant, E., et al. (2013) · Indilinga African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems · Cited by 6
To be or not to be sick and tired: Managing the visibility of HIV and HIV-related fatigue
Schuft, L., Duval, E., Thomas, J., & Ferez, S. (2017) · Health An Interdisciplinary Journal for the Social Study of Health Illness and Medicine · doi:10.1177/1363459317693406 · Cited by 6
“The concept of socially constructed realities has proven to be a compelling approach to the study of men and women’s experience of both fatigue (Walters and Denton, 1997) and illness (Conrad and Barker, 2010).”
BackgroundHow Do I Go Back? Psychotherapy with International Students Who Face Stigma upon Their Return Home
Matic, D., & Russell, G. M. (2019) · Journal of College Student Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/87568225.2019.1574216 · Cited by 9
“This starting-point has the added advantage of locating the “problem” in a student’s relationship with social settings rather than inside the student (Conrad & Barker, 2010; Russell & Bohan, 2007).”
BackgroundThe Measurement of Mental Disorder
Wakefield, J. C., & Schmitz, M. F. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289.005 · Cited by 7
Exploring the development of biological literacy in Tanzanian junior secondary school students
Juma, Z. R. (2015) · Open Access Victoria University of Wellington | Te Herenga Waka (Figshare) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.17009390 · Cited by 7
“The new gay plague”: analysis of public attitudes toward monkeypoxPreprint
Shah, T. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.11.01.22281797 · Cited by 6
“These sociocultural dimensions 7 play important roles in determining how illness is experienced, addressed with policy, and, most importantly, characterized by social perceptions and attitudes (Conrad & Barker, 2010).”
BackgroundHealth, Wellbeing, and Democratic Citizenship: A Review and Research Agenda
Anderson, C. J., Hagemann, S., & Klemmensen, R. (2021) · LSE Public Policy Review · doi:10.31389/lseppr.50 · Cited by 5
Addressing Health Inequities Via Community Engagement
Brady, B., Veljanova, I., & Chipchase, L. S. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-48277-0_110-1 · Cited by 5
Cao, B., & Wang, L. (2023) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2023.2259695 · Cited by 5
“Compared to the external narratives mentioned above, patients’ personal illness narratives adopt a more constructive mind-set in understanding and managing illness (Conrad & Barker, 2010).”
An Analysis of Cancer Survival Narratives Using Computerized Text Analysis Program
Kim, D. S., Park, A. H., & Kang, N. J. (2014) · Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing · doi:10.4040/jkan.2014.44.3.328 · Cited by 5
“암 환자의 마음은 복합 적이며 다양한 질병 사건(예를 들면, 진단, 치료, 합병증 발생, 악화, 재발, 암 치료로 인한 다른 암 발생 등)과 환경, 특히 사회문화적 환 경(예를 들면 가족, 사회, 문화)의 상호작용에 의하여 경험되고 변화 된다[1,2,23,24].”
The Affordable Care Act: Implications for African Americans Living with HIV
Owens, A. P. (2012) · Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment · doi:10.1080/10911359.2012.655600 · Cited by 5
“Conrad and Barker (2010) suggest that the biological effects of illness are at times less frightening than the negative social reactions to certain diagnoses.”
BackgroundWhy has medicine expanded? The role of consumers
Zheng, H. (2015) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.01.006 · Cited by 5
“To a certain degree, some new diseases may be socially constructed (Conrad and Barker, 2010) via the ‘‘medicalization’’ of an array of symptoms or behaviors, meaning the ‘‘process by which nonmedical problems become defined and treated as medical problems’’ (Conrad, 1992: 209).”
BackgroundRight (to a) Diagnosis? Establishing Correct Diagnoses in Chronic Disorders of Consciousness
Brukamp, K. (2012) · Neuroethics · doi:10.1007/s12152-012-9154-8 · Cited by 5
YOUTH VICTIMS, COMPETENT AGENTS: A SECOND OPINION ON SEXUAL VICTIMIZATION TRAUMA
Grondin, A.-M. (2011) · International Journal of Child Youth and Family Studies · doi:10.18357/ijcyfs23/420117759 · Cited by 5
“Sexual victimization is also frequently associated with medical (including psychological and psychiatric) illnesses and syndromes, and thus can be described as a problem that is “medicalized” (Conrad & Barker, 2010, p. S74).”
BackgroundMuir, J., Hegarty, R. S. M., Stebbings, S. M., & Treharne, G. J. (2020) · Musculoskeletal Care · doi:10.1002/msc.1494 · Cited by 5
Evaluating a potential role for community pharmacists in post‐bariatric patient nutritional support
Graham, Y. N. H., Earl‐Sinha, C., Parkin, L., Callejas‐Diaz, L., Fox, A., Tierney, C., Mahawar, K. K., & Hayes, C. (2020) · Clinical Obesity · doi:10.1111/cob.12364 · Cited by 5
“Medical knowledge about illness and disease is not necessarily given by nature but is constructed and developed by claims-makers and interested parties.(25) In order to more fully understand the way in which the participants' made meaning of their professional roles, the approaches to patient support and the resultant…”
BackgroundGeiss, C., & Egner, J. E. (2021) · Sociological Inquiry · doi:10.1111/soin.12445 · Cited by 5
Shaffer, J. D. (2021) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.12924 · Cited by 7
Deadly Disease vs. Chronic Illness: Competing Understandings of HIV in the HIV Non-Disclosure Debate
Speakman, E., & Pawluch, D. (2021) · Qualitative Sociology Review · doi:10.18778/1733-8077.17.4.02 · Cited by 5
Who Belongs, and How Far? Refugees and Bureaucrats Within the German Active Welfare State
Menke, K., & Rumpel, A. (2022) · Social Inclusion · doi:10.17645/si.v9i4.4646 · Cited by 5
“Additionally, health is a social product; it differs between societies, groups, and generations (Conrad & Barker, 2010; Flick, 2000).”
BackgroundPara além das classificações biomédicas: a experiência do câncer de mama no Brasil, 1990-2015
Barradas, C., Teixeira, L. A., & Neto, L. A. A. (2022) · História Ciências Saúde-Manguinhos · doi:10.1590/s0104-59702022000300003 · Cited by 5
Burles, M. C. (2017) · Health Sociology Review · doi:10.1080/14461242.2017.1383856 · Cited by 5
“Accordingly, illness is not an objective bodily state, but a profoundly social experience influenced by cultural beliefs, social institutions, and personal background (Conrad & Barker, 2010).”
BackgroundMIGRACIÓN Y COMPETENCIA CULTURAL: UN DESAFÍO PARA LOS TRABAJADORES DE SALUD
Pedrero, V., Bernales, M., & Pérez, C. (2018) · Revista Médica Clínica Las Condes · doi:10.1016/j.rmclc.2018.03.007 · Cited by 5
The social construction of multiple sclerosis in Israel: a cultural reading of illness narratives
Soffer, M. (2020) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2020.1860141 · Cited by 5
Rogalin, M. T., & Nencini, A. (2014) · Psychological Studies · doi:10.1007/s12646-014-0288-0 · Cited by 5
“, ADHD) promotes a pragmatic use of such label, together with the notions connected to it, in order to frame unexpected behavior or to explain unknown problematic situations (Conrad and Barker 2010).”
BackgroundContested and neglected: Social and medical marginalization in severe Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
Nezamdoust, B., & Ruel, E. E. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118766 · Cited by 4
Masculinity and Mental Health in Later Life in Sub‐Saharan Africa: A Review of Recent Literature
Folorunsho, S. A. (2025) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.70148 · Cited by 6
Disease frames and their consequences for stigma and medical research funds
Arseniev‐Koehler, A., & Best, R. K. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.117949 · Cited by 4
“…work suggests that disease frames have macro-level effects on the culture at large, public policies, and the distribution of resources such as medical research funding (Aronowitz, 1998; Brown, 1995; Conrad and Barker, 2010; Nie et al., 2016; Oliver, 2006; Shiffman, 2009:608; Sontag, 1978:182 – 83).”
Murray, R., Day, K., & Tobbell, J. (2019) · Feminist Media Studies · doi:10.1080/14680777.2019.1595694 · Cited by 5
“Conrad and Barker (2010) note that stigmatised illnesses may result in reluctance on the part of sufferers to seek help, which is problematic when an illness such as CFS/ME engenders a need for support.”
BackgroundAnderson, C., Zhou, S., & Chi, G. (2023) · Population Research and Policy Review · doi:10.1007/s11113-023-09816-9 · Cited by 4
“Interpreted in the context of the social construction of illness paradigm (Conrad & Barker, 2010), these studies suggest that, in fact, Amish people can and do experience illnesses in ways distinctive to their culture.”
BackgroundBelonging, identity and place: Middle-class Tasmanian rural young people in urban university
Castle, S., & Grant, R. (2023) · Journal of Rural Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2023.103139 · Cited by 4
Trust in the Public Health System and Seasonal-Influenza Vaccination
Vasile, M., Jderu, G., & Cristea, D. (2024) · Transylvanian Review of Administrative Sciences · doi:10.24193/tras.71e.7 · Cited by 4
van de Schoor, F. R., Baarsma, M. E., Gauw, S. A., Ursinus, J., Vrijmoeth, H. D., ter Hofstede, H. J. M., Tulen, A. D., Harms, M. G., Wong, A., van den Wijngaard, C. C., et al. (2024) · European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1007/s10096-024-04770-6 · Cited by 4
“Diagnoses which are generally considered contested illnesses [25] such as fibromyalgia (2/123, 1.6%), irritable bowel syndrome (4/123, 3.3%), and chronic fatigue syndrome (0/123, 0”
BackgroundInfluentialLester, J. N., O’Reilly, M. J., & Furlong, D. E. (2024) · Qualitative Research in Psychology · doi:10.1080/14780887.2024.2367589 · Cited by 4
“…of the natural sciences has dominated the production of knowledge in relation to disability, there has been a growing medicalization of the human; that is, symptoms, behaviours, and various conditions have become characterized and treated as problems for medicine to solve (Conrad & Barker, 2010).”
The main concern of burn survivors in Iran
Zamanzadeh, V., Valizadeh, L., Lotfi, M., Salehi, F., & Khalili, A. (2016) · Iranian Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Research · doi:10.4103/1735-9066.185593 · Cited by 4
“Qualitative studies conducted in the past 30 years,[13,14] however useful they may have been, have not really provided a clear comprehensive account of the true nature of the patients’ worries.”
BackgroundInvestigating the use of appropriation in the writing of a child with autism: A case study
Maxwell, J., Weill, C., & Damico, J. S. (2016) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2016.12.002 · Cited by 4
Back to the Future: Irving K. Zola’s Contributions to the Sociology of Disability
Welch, M. J. (2016) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1479-354720160000009007 · Cited by 4
“I just know”: exploring self-knowledge in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Williams, V., & Ryan, S. (2017) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/palcomms.2017.89 · Cited by 4
“The “rules” of validity are not applicable to knowledge derived from the subjective knowing of one’s body (Mol and Law, 2004; Conrad and Barker, 2010).”
BackgroundInternational Voluntary Health Networks (IVHNs). A social-geographical framework
Reid, B., Laurie, N. D., & Smith, M. B. (2018) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2017.12.005 · Cited by 4
Elliott, L. C., Bennett, A. S., Szott, K., & Golub, A. L. (2018) · Culture Medicine and Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s11013-018-9586-7 · Cited by 8
Heafner, J., & Mauldin, L. (2018) · Journal of Marital and Family Therapy · doi:10.1111/jmft.12337 · Cited by 4
The medicalization of cancer as socially constructed and culturally negotiated
Fries, C. J. (2020) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/daaa004 · Cited by 4
Experiences and ways PLWHA deal with their lives
Kiwanuka, A., Walakira, E., & Mafigiri, D. K. (2021) · African Health Sciences · doi:10.4314/ahs.v21i4.15 · Cited by 4
Job's Body and the Dramatised Comedy of Moralising
Southwood, K. E. (2020) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003029489 · Cited by 5
Bahçivan, O., Gutiérrez‐Maldonado, J., & Estapé, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1007065 · Cited by 5
“According to Social Constructivist Theory (SCT), one gains knowledge by means of social and individual group interactions (Conrad and Barker, 2010).”
MethodMfene, X. P., & Pillay, B. J. (2022) · South African Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1177/00812463221139651 · Cited by 4
“…Western and traditional notions of dementia, because knowledge of dementia symptoms, risk factors, and care usually varies according to personal and socio-cultural experiences, beliefs, and perceptions about the presentation of the disease (Chung, 2000; Conrad & Barker, 2010; Hindley et al., 2016).”
BackgroundTaylor-Egbeyemi, J., Carter, H., & Robin, C. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-15991-3 · Cited by 4
“Illness experience should be considered when developing and implementing policy, to ensure it can be enacted in everyday life [27].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Conrad, P., & Barker, K. K.
- Affiliations
- Brandeis University (US)
- Oregon State University (US)
- ORCID
- Barker, Kristin K.
- Venue
- Journal of Health and Social Behavior
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2010-03
- Volume
- 51
- Issue
- 1_suppl
- Pages
- S67-S79
- ISSN
- 0022-1465 (ISSN-L)
- 2150-6000
- OpenAlex
- W2105392510
- Semantic Scholar
- daba8e41984f917378dc8db2be9f01f2883d3625
- Cited by
- 888
- References
- 82
- Citations by year
- 2026: 38 · 2025: 66 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 77 · 2021: 81 · 2020: 54 · 2019: 79 · 2018: 57 · 2017: 95 · 2016: 52 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 13.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Health and Social Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Portal (Queen's University Belfast) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Medicine, History, and Philosophy
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Health, Medicine and Society
- Social Sciences › Education › Qualitative research in health
- Keywords
- social construction of illness, medical sociology, illness experience, claims-making, health policy, policy-relevant research
- MeSH terms
- Culture, Disease, Health Policy, Health Services Research, Humans, Public Opinion, Social Problems, Sociology, Medical, Knowledge
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