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Armed conflict and post-conflict justice, 1946–2006
Abstract
This article introduces a new dataset on post-conflict justice (PCJ) that provides an overview of if, where, and how post-conflict countries address the wrongdoings committed in association with previous armed conflict. Motivated by the literature on post-conflict peacebuilding, we study justice processes during post-conflict transitions. We examine: which countries choose to implement PCJ; where PCJ is implemented; and which measures are taken in post-conflict societies to address past abuse. Featuring justice and accountability processes, our dataset focuses solely on possible options to address wrongdoings that are implemented following and relating to a given armed conflict. These data allow scholars to address hypotheses regarding justice following war and the effect that these institutions have on transitions to peace. This new dataset includes all extrasystemic, internationalized internal, and internal armed conflicts from 1946 to 2006, with at least 25 annual battle-related deaths as coded by the UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset. The post-conflict justice (PCJ) efforts included are: trials, truth commissions, reparations, amnesties, purges, and exiles. By building upon the UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset, scholars interested in PCJ can include variables regarding the nature of the conflict itself to test how PCJ arrangements work in different environments in order to better address the relationships between justice, truth, and peace in the post-conflict period.
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“Yet scholars analyzing data on transitional justice have found little evidence that these mechanisms make a difference in preventing former autocrats from reasserting their political dominance (Olsen, Payne, and Reiter 2010a; Binningsbø et al. 2012) or that they matter for democracy in the long run (Olsen, Payne, and Reiter 2010a; Van der Merwe, Baxter, and Chapman 2009; Thoms, Ron, and Paris 2010”
From Accountability by Numbers: A New Global Transitional Justice Dataset (1946–2016) (2020) · cites this paper as Binningsbø et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“First, the PCJ dataset represents the most comprehensive coding of conflict-related justice processes both in terms of temporal scope and process type as it collects data on six postconflict justice types from 1946 through 2006.”
From Conflict Recurrence and Postconflict Justice: Addressing Motivations and Opportunities for Sustainable Peace (2017) · cites this paper as Binningsbø et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“Special attention was paid to coding target and sender in the PCJ dataset; this information was coded directly from the news reports and supplemental materials used to code the postconflict justice process (Binningsbø and Loyle 2012).”
From Conflict Recurrence and Postconflict Justice: Addressing Motivations and Opportunities for Sustainable Peace (2017) · cites this paper as Binningsbø and Loyle 2012
In the citing paper
“Finally, the PCJ dataset codes the process-specific variables necessary to test our hypotheses, such as the sender and target of each process (discussed further below).”
From Conflict Recurrence and Postconflict Justice: Addressing Motivations and Opportunities for Sustainable Peace (2017) · cites this paper as Binningsbø et al. 2012
Citations
Cites
Armed Conflict 1946-2001: A New Dataset
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“By building upon the UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset (Gleditsch et al., 2002), our data, by design, relate directly to a prominent conflict dataset.”
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“This figure also indicates the capacity to compare how different transitional justice provisions interrelate and explore how they relate to each other (cf. Binningsbø et al., 2012).”
BackgroundViolent conflict and inequality
Bircan, Ç., Brück, T., & Vothknecht, M. (2016) · Oxford Development Studies · doi:10.1080/13600818.2016.1213227 · Cited by 86
Transitional Injustice: Subverting Justice in Transition and Postconflict Societies
Loyle, C. E., & Davenport, C. (2015) · Journal of Human Rights · doi:10.1080/14754835.2015.1052897 · Cited by 81
“…period.2 This work attempts to shed light on the selection (Kritz 1995; Elster 2004; Stahn 2005), implementation (Fletcher, Weinstein, and Rowen 2009; Binningsbø et al. 2012), and outcomes (Kaminski and Nalepa 2006; Thoms, Ron, and Paris 2008; Olsen et al. 2010a) of TJ around the world.”
BackgroundSelf-citationLoyle, C. E., & Appel, B. J. (2017) · International Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1093/isq/sqx045 · Cited by 78
Self-citationJustice Matters: Peace Negotiations, Stable Agreements, and Durable Peace
Druckman, D., & Wagner, L. M. (2017) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002717739088 · Cited by 75
Loyle, C. E., & Binningsbø, H. M. (2016) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002716655441 · Cited by 74
“…et al. 2002; Themnér and Wallensteen 2012) as our basis for defining country-years that exhibit active conflict.2 Similar to post-conflict justice (Binningsbø et al. 2012), DCJ is defined to focus exclusively on crimes or wrongdoings related to the events of a particular conflict.3 While it is…”
BackgroundSelf-citationDeals with the Devil? Conflict Amnesties, Civil War, and Sustainable Peace
Dancy, G. (2017) · International Organization · doi:10.1017/s0020818318000012 · Cited by 63
“Binningsbø et al. 2012; Mallinder 2008; Olsen, Payne, and Reiter 2010.”
BackgroundExposure to Violence and Attitudes Towards Transitional Justice
Hall, J., Kovras, I., Stefanović, D., & Loizides, N. (2017) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12412 · Cited by 58
“A number of other studies have found a positive correlation between personal victimization and support for policies of material reparations (Biro et al., 2004; Gibson, 2002; Nalepa, 2010). David and Choi (2006) suggest that ex-prisoners who suffer from continued economic deprivation or health problems as a result of t…”
Carnegie, A. S., & Carson, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108778114 · Cited by 76
Spoilers of peace: Pro-government militias as risk factors for conflict recurrence
Steinert, C., Steinert, J., & Carey, S. C. (2018) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343318800524 · Cited by 54
“This follows a common approach in the post-conflict literature (Binningsbø et al., 2012; Flores & Nooruddin, 2009).”
MethodThe economic benefits of justice
Appel, B. J., & Loyle, C. E. (2012) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343312450044 · Cited by 52
Self-citationAccountability by Numbers: A New Global Transitional Justice Dataset (1946–2016)
Bates, G., Cinar, I., & Nalepa, M. (2020) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592719000756 · Cited by 49
“Our country selection criteria build on the existing Autocratic Breakdown and Regime Transitions (GWF) dataset (Geddes, Wright, and Frantz 2014) and the Post-Con fl ict Justice (PCJ) database (Binningsbø et al. 2012).”
InfluentialProfits from Peace: The Political Economy of Power-Sharing and Corruption
Haaß, F., & Ottmann, M. (2017) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.07.006 · Cited by 51
The impact of criminal prosecutions during intrastate conflict
Dancy, G., & Wiebelhaus‐Brahm, E. (2017) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343317732614 · Cited by 41
“…for human rights and atrocity crimes (Kim & Sikkink, 2010), while others broaden their definition to also include trials of combatants for plotting coups, committing treason, sabotaging the military, or threatening national security (Binningsbø et al., 2012; Olsen, Payne & Reiter, 2010).”
BackgroundTaylor, L. K., & Dukalskis, A. (2012) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343312449847 · Cited by 36
“…empirical relationships between transitional justice mechanisms and political outcomes such as human rights and democracy, the cross-national effort has only recently begun in earnest (Binningsbø et al., 2012; Olsen, Payne & Reiter, 2010; Dancy, Kim & Wiebelhaus-Brahm, 2010; Kim & Sikkink, 2010).”
BackgroundDrivers of Durable Peace: The Role of Justice in Negotiating Civil War Termination
Wagner, L. M., & Druckman, D. (2016) · Group Decision and Negotiation · doi:10.1007/s10726-016-9511-9 · Cited by 34
“By managing the conflict, equality gives peacekeepers an opportunity to transition to a stage where the agreements are self-enforcing and peace-building activities take over (see also Binningsbø et al. 2012).”
BackgroundMethodDeploying Justice: Strategic Accountability for Wartime Sexual Violence
Loken, M., Lake, M., & Cronin-Furman, K. (2018) · International Studies Quarterly · doi:10.1093/isq/sqy039 · Cited by 30
How and When Amnesty during Conflict Affects Conflict Termination
Daniels, L.-A. (2020) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002720909884 · Cited by 31
“To address this problem, researchers are increasingly generating cross-national analyses of justice mechanisms and civil war (Binningsbø et al. 2012; Reiter, Olsen, and Payne 2012; Olsen, Payne, and Reiter 2010; Dancy 2018).”
BackgroundExamining the Use of Amnesties and Pardons as a Response to Internal Armed Conflict
Reiter, A. G. (2014) · Israel Law Review · doi:10.1017/s0021223713000290 · Cited by 25
Secrets in Global Governance : Disclosure Dilemmas and the Challenge of International Cooperation
Carnegie, A. S., & Carson, A. (2020) · Cited by 24
Negotiating justice: Ceasefires, peace agreements, and post-conflict justice
Cox, J. M. (2019) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343319879485 · Cited by 24
“I test the aforementioned hypotheses using data derived from the Post-Conflict Justice (PCJ) dataset generated by Binningsbø et al. (2012) on four types of post-conflict justice for civil wars occurring between 1946 and 2005: trials, purges, amnesties, and reparations.7 Although linked with a civil…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialJustice and Fairness in Negotiation
Druckman, D., & Wagner, L. M. (2016) · Group Decision and Negotiation · doi:10.1007/s10726-016-9496-4 · Cited by 24
Agbiboa, D. E. (2014) · Journal of Asian and African Studies · doi:10.1177/0021909614530082 · Cited by 21
“…focused on the many institutional alternatives available to build peace, such as power-sharing (Hartzell and Hoddie, 2007; Jarstad and Nilsson, 2008), security sector reform (Toft 2010), peacekeeping forces (Doyle and Sambanis, 2006), and post-conflict justice (Bell, 2009; BinningsbØ et al., 2012).”
BackgroundPolitics of Pursuing Justice in the Aftermath of Civil Conflict
Kim, N. K., & Hong, M. H. (2018) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/0022002718788926 · Cited by 19
“A trial is " defined as the formal examination of alleged wrongdoing through judicial proceedings within a legal structure " (Binningsbø et al., 2012, 734).”
InfluentialDesigning Truth: Facilitating Perpetrator Testimony at Truth Commissions
Zvobgo, K. (2019) · Journal of Human Rights · doi:10.1080/14754835.2018.1543017 · Cited by 18
“There are many types of amnesties, including general (or, unconditional) amnesties and limited amnesties covering certain groups or crimes (Olsen et al. 2010: 806–808; Binningsbø et al. 2012: 735).”
BackgroundPolice reforms in peace agreements, 1975–2011
Ansorg, N., Haaß, F., & Strasheim, J. (2016) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343316628932 · Cited by 18
“While data collections also include information on aspects of the broader security sector context, such as provisions for military powersharing (Ottmann & Vüllers, 2015), transitional justice (Binningsbø et al., 2012), or demobilization, disarmament and reintegration (DDR) (Harbom, Högbladh & Wallensteen, 2006), the p…”
BackgroundTruth, justice, and reconciliation on the ground: normative divergence in the Western Balkans
Subotić, J. (2015) · Journal of International Relations and Development · doi:10.1057/jird.2015.13 · Cited by 17
Kitagawa, R., & Bell, S. R. (2022) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/00220027211066616 · Cited by 15
“Some focus on specific phases of the conflict (e.g., Binningsbø et al. 2012; Loyle and Binngsbø, 2018) and others are limited to democratic transitions (e.g., Bates, Cinar, and Nalepa 2019; Transitional Justice Database), which do not necessarily coincide with transitions out of conflict and leave…”
BackgroundCivil War Victory and the Onset of Genocide and Politicide
Uzonyi, G. (2014) · International Interactions · doi:10.1080/03050629.2014.932786 · Cited by 13
“For comparability to past studies, I then follow the direction of Binningsbø et al. (2012), Hartzell et al. (2001), and Licklider (1995) in defining the postconflict period as the first five years following the end of civil war, as coded by the UCDP/PRIO data set, since this period is the time in…”
ResultDemocracy and Retribution: Transitional Justice and Regime Support in Postwar West Germany
Capoccia, G., & Pop-Elecheș, G. (2019) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414019852704 · Cited by 14
Assessing authoritarian conflict management in the Middle East and Central Asia
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Encuadres mediáticos del Perdón y Reconciliación en el contexto del conflicto armado colombiano
López‐López, W., Correa‐Chica, A., Morales-Sierra, M. D. P., Rivera-Escobar, S., & Rincón‐Unigarro, C. (2020) · Revista Colombiana de Psicología · doi:10.15446/.v29n1.81505 · Cited by 13
Post Conflict Justice, Peacekeeping, and Civil Conflict Recurrence
Almuslem, A. G. (2020) · International Peacekeeping · doi:10.1080/13533312.2020.1744440 · Cited by 1
The Marginality of Transitional Justice within Liberal Peacebuilding: Causes and Consequences
McAuliffe, P. (2016) · Journal of Human Rights Practice · doi:10.1093/jhuman/huw022 · Cited by 12
Amnesties and Inclusive Political SettlementsPreprint
Mallinder, L. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3341311 · Cited by 12
Victim's Justice in the Aftermath of Political Violence: Why Do Countries Award Reparations?
Powers, K. L., & Proctor, K. (2015) · Foreign Policy Analysis · doi:10.1111/fpa.12076 · Cited by 11
Perceptions of the Colombian business sector regarding its role in the post-conflict
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Trial fairness before impact: Tracing the link between post-conflict trials and peace stability
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BackgroundMethodInfluentialStick Then Carrot: When Do Governments Give Amnesty during Civil War?
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Loyle, C. E., & Davenport, C. (2014) · Palgrave Macmillan US eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137408341_7 · Cited by 5
Self-citationTransitional Justice in the Colombian Final Accord
Quinn, J., & Joshi, M. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108614856.010 · Cited by 5
Rincón‐Unigarro, C., López‐López, W., Gutiérrez-Romero, M. F., Castañeda, J. G., Unda-Segura, A., & Orjuela-García, A. (2022) · International Journal of Social Psychology Revista de Psicología Social · doi:10.1080/02134748.2021.2002059 · Cited by 5
“The purpose of these mechanisms is to guarantee the rights and promote the reconciliation of victims to prevent the emergence of new outbreaks of violence (Binningsbø et al., 2012; David, 2017).”
BackgroundTactics of resistance and post-conflict judicial independence
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“We see various transitional justice mechanisms after both violent and nonviolent conflicts, such as truth and reconciliation commissions in South Africa and Sierra Leone, or lustration in Czechoslovakia and Iraq (Binningsbø et al., 2012; Loyle & Appel, 2017; Olsen, Payne & Reiter, 2010).”
BackgroundCivilians’ Strategies of Post-Conflict Social Revival in Northwestern Pakistan
Sanaullah (2024) · Ethnopolitics · doi:10.1080/17449057.2024.2404340 · Cited by 4
“The latter means ‘a promise (or in some cases formal legislation) on the part of the ruling party to not prosecute or punish past vio-lators’ (Binningsbø et al., 2012).”
Who are Our Experts? Predictors of Participation in Expert Surveys
Steinert, C., & Ruggeri, A. (2020) · Peace Economics Peace Science and Public Policy · doi:10.1515/peps-2020-0007 · Cited by 4
“In total, we distributed 415 emails which contained short descriptions of the respective trial as provided by the Background Narratives of the Post-Conflict Justice Dataset (Binningsbø and Loyle 2012) and personalized invitations to the online survey.”
MethodInfluentialNegotiating Peace: The Role of Procedural and Distributive Justice in Achieving Durable Peace
Druckman, D., & Wagner, L. M. (2017) · Lecture notes in business information processing · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-52624-9_12 · Cited by 3
Leib, J. (2019) · Peace Economics Peace Science and Public Policy · doi:10.1515/peps-2019-0033 · Cited by 3
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Dancy, G., Thoms, O. T., Pham, P., Sikkink, K., & Vinck, P. (2025) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/00223433251360200 · Cited by 3
“TJET is the fifth major longitudinal TJ dataset (Bates et al., 2020; Binningsbø et al., 2012; Dancy et al., 2019; Olsen et al., 2010), and it makes three major advancements (see Online Appendix for an analysis of prior datasets).”
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“Third, we discuss the data 1 —the Targeted Mass Killing (TMK) Dataset (Butcher et al., 2020) and the Post-Conflict Justice (PCJ) Dataset (Binningsbø et al., 2012a, 2022)—and the method—a split-population duration model (Beger et al., 2017)—that we used to analyze the relationship between…”
InfluentialIs Satisfaction with Democracy Higher After Transitional Justice Trials?
Padilla, J. (2025) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-025-10007-9 · Cited by 4
“In the last years, several collections of data have complemented the tradition of case studies (Binningsbø et al., 2012; Olsen et al., 2010 ; Sikkink & Kim, 2013 ), but many questions remain open.”
Crescenzi, M. J. C. (2026) · Conflict Management and Peace Science · doi:10.1177/07388942261437815 · Cited by 1
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Wielding the Gavel or Balancing the Scales? Domestic Legal Systems and Post-Conflict Justice
Cox, J. M., & Nostrand, R. D. V. (2022) · Journal of Conflict Resolution · doi:10.1177/00220027221110581 · Cited by 1
“The issues giving rise to the conflict, the conflict’s intensity and severity, the conflict’s duration, and how the conflict concluded all impact the likelihood of post-conflict justice adoption and the form it takes (DeTommaso et al. 2017; Reiter et al. 2012; Binningsbø et al. 2012).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPeacebuilding, Political Order, and Post-War Risks
Willcoxon, G. F. (2015) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 1
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Nichols, A. D. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-11172-4_4
Achieiving an unpopular balance: post-conflict justice and amnesties in comparative perspective
Dancy, G. (2019) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja)
Between ‘firefighting management’ and shaping the future.
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CONFLICT RESOLUTION: TRANSITIONAL JUSTICE MECHANISMS IN A POST-WAR SYRIA
Morrow, S. M. (2018) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona)
Trials of Peace: Post-Conflict Criminal Prosecutions and Conflict RecurrencePreprint
Dancy, G., & Wiebelhaus‐Brahm, E. (2019) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3320577
Carnegie, A. S., & Carson, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108778114.007
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Bdiwi, G. (2021) · YorkSpace (York University)
Carnegie, A. S., & Carson, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108778114.008
Carnegie, A. S., & Carson, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108778114.002
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Carnegie, A. S., & Carson, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108778114.005
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Carnegie, A. S., & Carson, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108778114.004
(2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108778114.009
Carnegie, A. S., & Carson, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108778114.010
Achieving an Unpopular Balance
Dancy, G. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108614856.015
The Saudi-led Intervention in Yemen. (c2021)
Salehi, H. A. (2021) · doi:10.26756/th.2022.252
Resisting Indonesia’s Culture of Impunity: Aceh’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission
Wahyuningroem, S. L., Pohlman, A. E., & Melvin, J. (2023) · ANU Press eBooks · doi:10.22459/rici.2023 · Cited by 2
Promoting Women? Causes and Effects of Gender-Informed Transitional Justice
Roark, P. D. (2023) · University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) · doi:10.12794/metadc2256343
Nenningsland, D. (2024) · Journal of Human Rights · doi:10.1080/14754835.2024.2374563 · Cited by 2
“Therefore, I created a dummy variable for TJ implementation using the PCJ dataset (Binningsbø et al., 2012).”
InfluentialAre domestic war crimes trials biased?
Sokolić, I., Kostovicova, D., Lova, L. L., & Vico, S. (2024) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/00223433241292143 · Cited by 1
“Trials examine ‘alleged wrongdoing through judicial proceedings within a legal structure’ (Binningsbø et al., 2012: 734).”
Classification and Compensation: How the Conflict Type Shapes Reparations in Post-War Justice
Bonacker, T. (2025) · Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding · doi:10.1080/17502977.2025.2492937
“The only striking thing here is that criminal proceedings are carried out much more frequently in relation to conflicts over government (Binningsbø et al. 2012, 737).”
InfluentialGómez, J. D. V., & Quintero-González, A. (2024) · Revista de Psicología Universidad de Antioquia · doi:10.17533/udea.rp.e356214
Conceptualizing Mandates in International Mediation
Svensson, I., & Wallensteen, P. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009413923.003
Introducing REBLEX: A new dataset on rebel leaders in exile
Kim, D., Choi, H. J., & Kim, J. (2025) · International Interactions · doi:10.1080/03050629.2025.2591432
“The latter suggests that by granting a safe retirement abroad, the option of exile allows outgoing rulers to evade domestic punishment and, in turn, renounce the gamble for resurrection (Binningsbø et al. 2012; Escribà-Folch 2013; Kubota, Hidaka, and Yukawa 2022).”
Justice in Action: Assessing the Institutional Design and Implementation of Transitional Justice
Miller, J. L. (2014) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona)
JUSTICE AFTER WAR IN NAGORNO-KARABAKH: A STUDY OF JUS POST BELLUM PRINCIPLES
Özdemir, E. (2026) · Review of Armenian Studies · doi:10.54842/ras.1864590
Metadata
- Authors
- Binningsbø, H. M., Loyle, C. E., Gates, S., & Elster, J.
- Affiliations
- Peace Research Institute Oslo (NO)
- West Virginia University (US)
- Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NO)
- Collège de France (FR)
- Venue
- Journal of Peace Research
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2012-09-01
- Volume
- 49
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 731-740
- ISSN
- 0022-3433 (ISSN-L)
- 1460-3578
- OpenAlex
- W2128014874
- Cited by
- 104
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 6 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 26.43
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Peace Research (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- United States Institute of Peace
- Norges Teknisk-Naturvitenskapelige Universitet
- Norges Forskningsråd
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › War, Law, and Justice
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Peacebuilding and International Security
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Political Conflict and Governance
- Keywords
- post-conflict justice, armed conflict, post-conflict peacebuilding, transitional justice, truth commissions, reparations, amnesty, purges, exile, accountability, internal armed conflict, peace and justice
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