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Cited by 4Suicide and Self-Harm StudiesHealth disparities and outcomesMental Health Research Topics

Thwarted Belonging and Perceived Burdensomeness During Middle and Older Adulthood: The Role of Generativity

Open access
Gager, Constance T., Gunn, John F., Goldstein, Sara E., Martinez, Stephanie M.·2024·The International Journal of Aging and Human Development
DOI 10.1177/00914150231208688
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Abstract

Using a sample of middle-aged and older adults, this research explores associations between generativity and two key risk factors for suicide: thwarted belonging (T.B.) and perceived burdensomeness (P.B.). These variables are typically studied as predictors of suicide; the current study is unique in examining their psychosocial correlates. Erikson described, generativity as a psychosocial construct that characterizes adult well-being in mid-life, conceptualized as the sense one has successfully guided and contributed to the younger generation through mentoring. Using the Midlife in the United States Survey (MIDUS), the current analyses indicate that generativity is associated with lower levels of P.B. and T.B., even after accounting for measures of hopelessness, depressive symptoms, financial stability, perceived neighborhood quality, chronic health conditions, and respondent's demographic characteristics including gender and age. Results are discussed in terms of applications for suicide-risk prevention, and with regard to the promotion of positive psychosocial development across the lifespan.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/00914150231208688

Cites

54 of 55 references verified0 citation errors · 1 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

4 of 23 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    According to the IPTS, risk for suicide is highest among individuals when both perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness are perceived.

    “Risk for suicide, according to the IPTS, is highest among individuals when both P.B and T.B. are perceived.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Van Orden et al., 2010 source

      In “Hypothesis 2: Suicidal Desire” (page unavailable), the paper says suicidal desire is most severe when thwarted belongingness and perceived burdensomeness occur together, though its hypothesis also requires hopelessness about those states. “Hypothesis Four: Lethal (and near lethal) Suicide Attempts” (page unavailable) says the highest risk of serious suicidal behavior also depends on capability for suicide. The claim therefore captures the theory’s account of suicidal desire but omits conditions needed for its broader statement about suicide risk. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingown data

    Generativity had a significant negative bivariate association with thwarted belonging (r = -0.28 males; r = -0.14 females).

    “Additionally, our main predictor of interest, generativity, also had significant associations with P.B (r = -0.28males; r = -0.14females) and T.B. (r = -0.28males; r = -0.14).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The MIDUS-Refresher biomarker subsample is representative of middle-aged and older adults in the United States.
  • Findingown data

    Male participants reported a greater sense of thwarted belonging than female participants.

    “Although male and female participants did not differ on P.B, they did differ on T.B., t (455) = 2.63, p < .01,with male participants reporting a greater sense of T.B. as compared to female participants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The MIDUS-Refresher biomarker subsample is representative of middle-aged and older adults in the United States.
  • Findingown data

    Generativity had a significant negative bivariate association with perceived burdensomeness (r = -0.28 males; r = -0.14 females).

    “Additionally, our main predictor of interest, generativity, also had significant associations with P.B (r = -0.28males; r = -0.14females) and T.B. (r = -0.28males; r = -0.14).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The MIDUS-Refresher biomarker subsample is representative of middle-aged and older adults in the United States.
  • Findingown data

    Generativity is associated with lower perceived burdensomeness after accounting for hopelessness, depressive symptoms, financial stability, perceived neighborhood quality, chronic health conditions, and demographic characteristics including gender and age.

    “Using the Midlife in the United States Survey (MIDUS), the current analyses indicate that generativity is associated with lower levels of P.B. and T.B., even after accounting for measures of hopelessness, depressive symptoms, financial stability, perceived neighborhood quality, chronic health conditions, and respondent's demographic characteristics including gender and age.”
    • Also stated in: § Model 1: Perceived Burdensomeness · hedged
      “Generativity had a statistically significant, negative regression coefficient (β = -0.10),indicating that participants with higher levels of generativity were less likely to report P.B.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The MIDUS-Refresher biomarker subsample is representative of middle-aged and older adults in the United States.
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 21
  • May combine two claims. 10

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belonging are posited by the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide to be instrumental in the development of the desire to die by suicide.

    “These two risk factors are posited by the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide (IPTS) to be instrumental in the development of the desire to die by suicide (Joiner, 2005;Van Orden et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Joiner, 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Van Orden et al., 2010 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Grossman & Gruenewald (2017) found that those caring for loved ones were more likely to report a higher sense of generativity.

    “They found that those who were caring for loved ones were more likely to report a higher sense of generativity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Grossman & Gruenewald, 2017 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Loneliness and lack of social connectedness are associated with suicidal thoughts and behavior, according to the IPTS model.

    “This is in line with the IPTS model, which posits that loneliness and lack of social connectedness are associated with suicidal thoughts and behavior (Van Orden et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Van Orden et al., 2010 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Depressive symptoms, hopelessness, family support, and friend support were significantly associated with thwarted belonging in the final model.

    “In addition to generativity, depressive symptoms (β = 0.18), hopelessness (β = 0.29), family support (β = -0.15),and friend support (β = -0.21)were all significantly associated with T.B.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The MIDUS-Refresher biomarker subsample is representative of middle-aged and older adults in the United States.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The family support measure had good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.73).

    “Family support had good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.73) and friend support had very good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.86).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The combination of perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belonging results in the desire to die by suicide.

    “The combination of P.B. and T.B. results in the desire to die by suicide.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The hopelessness measure had very good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.82).

    “The scale had very good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.82).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The perceived neighborhood quality measure had suitable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.72).

    “Perceptions of neighborhood quality were constructed using 5 items from past research (Keyes, 1998) and 4-items developed by the MIDUS researchers and had suitable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.72).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Keyes, 1998 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The friend support measure had very good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.86).

    “Family support had good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.73) and friend support had very good internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.86).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The generativity measure had high internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.82).

    “Generativity was constructed using a 6-item short form of the Loyola Generativity Scale (McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992) and had a high degree of internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.82).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McAdams & de St. Aubin, 1992 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The financial stability measure had very high internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.82).

    “The measure for financial stability was collected using 7 items developed by the MIDUS researchers and which had very high internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.82).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Very little research has explored the possible connection between generativity and suicide.

    “Despite the central role that generativity can have for understanding adult wellbeing during the middle-aged adult years and beyond, very little research has explored the possible connection between generativity and suicide.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Preliminary state-level data from the Covid-19 Pandemic points to emerging racial differences, with white suicides decreasing and non-white suicides increasing.

    “Moreover, preliminary state-level data from the Covid-19 Pandemic points to alarming emerging racial differences, with white suicides decreasing and non-white suicides increasing (Bray et al., 2020;Mitchell & Li, 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bray et al., 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Mitchell & Li, 2021 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Women may report higher generativity due to their multiple roles across family and work.

    “In sum, women may report higher generativity due to their multiple roles across family and work.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Poor physical health has been found to affect suicide ideation and may increase isolation, leading to greater thwarted belonging and perceived burdensomeness.

    “In addition to mental health characteristics, poor physical health has also been found to affect suicide ideation, (for a review see Hunt et al., 2009) and may increase isolation, leading to an increases feeling of not belonging (T.B.) as well as greater sense of being a burden (P.B.).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hunt et al., 2009 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the updated IPTS model, perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belonging are enough for more passive suicidal thoughts, but hopelessness increases suicidal desire toward action.

    “In this updated model, P.B. and T.B. are enough for more passive suicidal thoughts, but the presence of hopelessness increases the suicidal desire toward action.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Moieni et al. (2021) found that women with positive expectations for their mental health as they aged reported lower loneliness and greater perceived social support after a generativity condition.

    “In this work, women who had positive expectations for their mental health as they aged reported lower loneliness and greater perceived social support after a generativity condition (i.e., writing about life experiences and sharing advice).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Moieni et al., 2021 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The MIDUS dataset does not include scales for perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness, nor did the study have data to assess suicidal thoughts and behaviors directly.

    “Finally, the MIDUS dataset does not include scales for P.B. and T.B. nor did we have data to assess suicidal thoughts and behaviors directly.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Miller et al. (2013) found that low levels of generativity were a significant predictor of depressed mood among immigrants from the former Soviet Union.

    “Low levels of generativity were a significant predictor of depressed mood.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Miller et al., 2013 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Donker et al. (2014) found that a one-point increase on the perceived burdensomeness scale increased odds of suicide ideation five-fold in males and two-fold in females.

    “Donker and colleagues (2014), using a seven-point scale for P.B., found that males were five times more likely to report suicide ideation with a onepoint increase on the scale for P.B., while females likelihood only increased two-fold.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Donker et al., 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Death by suicide is more common among men than women, although women attempt at a greater rate.

    “For example, death by suicide is more common among men than women, although women attempt at a greater rate (Drapeau & McIntosh, 2023).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Drapeau & McIntosh, 2023

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Women's dual family caregiver and paid work roles may protect women from feelings of isolation or being a burden.

    “Although considerable negative effects are the focus of much research on the second shift (especially salient during the Covid-19 pandemic), we note that women's dual family caregiver and paid work roles may actually protect women from feelings of isolation or being a burden.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    According to Joiner (2011), men in mid-life and old age allow their relationships to atrophy, leading to greater experience of thwarted belongingness and ultimately greater suicide risk.

    “Furthermore, according to Joiner (2011), men in mid-life and old age allow their relationships to atrophy, leading to greater experience of T.B. and ultimately greater suicide risk.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Joiner (2011)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Donker et al. (2014) found that a one-point increase on the thwarted belonging scale increased odds of suicide ideation by 67% in females but was not significant for males.

    “In contrast, a one-point increase on the T.B. scale increased the odds of suicide ideation by 67% in females, but was no significant for males in the sample.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Donker et al., 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Generativity may be associated with lower suicide ideation and acts by providing a protective effect against perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness.

    “Thus, our results suggest that generativity-by providing a protective effect against P.B and T.B.-may be associated with lower suicide ideation and acts.”
    • Also stated in: § Conclusion · hedged
      “However, the present findings highlight the potential for generativity to be a protective factor against two highly discussed suicide risk factors: P.B. and T.B.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Peterson (2002) found that women with higher sense of generativity reported less burden caring for their aging parents.

    “In addition, Peterson (2002) found that women with higher sense of generativity reported less burden caring for their aging parents.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Peterson, 2002 source
26 of 26

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The MIDUS-Refresher biomarker subsample is representative of middle-aged and older adults in the United States.

    “These complex issues are examined in the current study in a sample representing middle/older-age-adults in the United States (MIDUS) biomarker subsample.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is a gap in the literature regarding the association of generativity with perceived burdensomeness and thwarted belongingness in middle and older adulthood.

    “Our research sought to fill a gap in the literature by examining the association of generativity with two characteristics of social cognition that previous researchers found was linked to suicide-P.B. and T.B..”
2 of 2

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentt(455) = 2.63reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .009

    “t (455) = 2.63, p < .01”

  • Consistentt(454) = -3.31reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .001

    “t (454) = -3.31,p < .001”

2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Generativity is called significant in Model 3, but its confidence interval includes zero

    Major

    The reported 95% confidence interval for generativity in Model 3 runs from −0.223 to 0.067. It includes zero, contradicting the claim that this coefficient is statistically significant at the stated threshold.

  • Reported age intervals conflict with the claim that age was nonsignificant

    Major

    The table's 95% confidence intervals for age exclude zero in all three models, whereas the results say age was not statistically significant in any of them.

  • Model 3 depression interval conflicts with its reported significance

    Major

    Depressive symptoms are described as a significant contributor to Model 3, but the table gives a 95% confidence interval of −0.044 to 0.396, which includes zero.

  • Model 3 family-support interval conflicts with its reported significance

    Minor

    Family support is described as a significant contributor to Model 3, but its reported 95% confidence interval is −0.317 to 0.045 and therefore includes zero.

4 of 4

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 7

  1. Christensen H., 2014, BMS Psychology, 2, 20, 10.1186/2050-7283-2-20 · DOI
  2. Czeisler M. E., 2020, CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69, 32
  3. Devins G. M., 1985, Test Critiques, 21, 267
  4. Erikson E. H., 1963, Childhood and society
  5. Gilligan C., 2016, In a different voice
  6. Hernandez S. C. (2022). Suicidal ideation across adulthood: Applying Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development [Doctoral dissertation]. Case Western Reserve University.
  7. Joiner T. E. J., 2011, Lonely at the top: The high cost of men’s success

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Gager, C. T., Gunn, J. F., Goldstein, S. E., & Martinez, S. M.
Affiliations
  • Montclair State University (US)
  • Gwynedd Mercy University (US)
  • University of Delaware (US)
Corresponding author
Gager, Constance T.
ORCID
Venue
The International Journal of Aging and Human Development
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2024-01-30
Volume
99
Issue
1
Pages
25-46
ISSN
  • 0091-4150 (ISSN-L)
  • 1541-3535
DOI
10.1177/00914150231208688
OpenAlex
W4391394391
Cited by
4
References
50
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 2
FWCI
1.87
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
  • The International Journal of Aging and Human Development (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
  • Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Keywords
generativity, perceived burdensomeness, suicide risk, midlife, older adults, hopelessness, depressive symptoms, suicide prevention
MeSH terms
Aged, Aging, Depression, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Risk Factors, Suicide

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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