Spaced learning and melodic memory
Open accessAbstract
Distributed learning is a powerful tool for optimizing retention of verbal materials. We examined the effect of distributing learning on long-term memory for a melody and found strong evidence of better recall in the spaced conditions. In the current study, music students were taught a four-phrase melody in learning sessions that were massed, spaced at 2 days, or spaced at 1 week. Three weeks later, they were tested for recall. Performances were evaluated for note omissions, number of incorrect notes and intervals, and number of correct notes and intervals. Results indicated strong evidence for a spacing effect for melody learning between the massed and spaced conditions at a retention interval of 3 weeks, and no evidence of difference between the two spaced conditions. Unlike most spacing studies, memory did not improve with longer spacing between learning episodes. These results suggest that memory for a melody may rely primarily on structural constraints within the material itself. Once these constraints are understood and associated with the cue, the performance unspools. Results have implications for best practices in melodic learning and for the role of constraining cues in the retrieval of structured non-verbal material.
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For procedural and sensorimotor memory, validated tools such as the Objective Structured Assessment of Technical Skills (OSATS), microlearning capsules, and rhythmic/melodic precision metrics were implemented to capture implicit memory consolidation.
“For procedural and sensorimotor memory, validated tools such as the Objective Structured Assessment of Technical Skills (OSATS), microlearning capsules, and rhythmic/melodic precision metrics were implemented to capture implicit memory consolidation (Katz & Wiseheart, 2025;Melnikova & Patrina, 2025;Simmons, 2012;Yan et al., 2024).”
From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Katz & Wiseheart, 2025
Some studies indicate that the distribution of practice-especially with overnight intervals-may favor the consolidation of motor and technical skills.
“Regarding implicit or procedural memory, some studies indicate that the distribution of practice-especially with overnight intervals-may favor the consolidation of motor and technical skills”
From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Katz & Wiseheart, 2025
The use of MMAT revealed a generally high level of internal validity in studies employing advanced neurophysiological markers or high-impact academic assessments.
“The use of MMAT added an additional layer of methodological calibration, revealing a generally high level of internal validity in studies employing advanced neurophysiological markers (e.g., EEG, standardized performance metrics) (Feng et al., 2019;Katz et al., 2021;Katz & Wiseheart, 2025) or high-impact academic assessments (Gilbert et al., 2023;Burel et al., 2025;Azim et al., 2025).”
From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Katz & Wiseheart, 2025
Cites
Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis.
Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354 · Cited by 1,888 · cited 2× · see citing works
“There is considerable research looking at the effects of distributed learning on memory for word lists (Cepeda et al., 2006) and there is evidence for the positive effects of varying both the intervals between study sessions and retention intervals for memory of relatively simple cognitive tasks…”
A meta-analytic review of the distribution of practice effect: Now you see it, now you don’t
Donovan, J. J., & Radosevich, D. J. (1999) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.84.5.795 · Cited by 696 · see citing works
Spacing Effects in Learning: A Temporal Ridgeline of Optimal Retention
Cepeda, N. J., Vul, E., Rohrer, D., Wixted, J. T., & Pashler, H. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02209.x · Cited by 631 · see citing works
Optimizing distributed practice
Cepeda, N. J., Coburn, N., Rohrer, D., Wixted, J. T., Mozer, M. C., & Pashler, H. (2009) · Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.56.4.236 · Cited by 296 · cited 4× · see citing works
“The spacing effect refers to the boost in recall gained from distributing learning over minutes, hours, days, or months, compared with learning materials presented in one massed session (Cepeda et al., 2008, 2009; Donovan & Radosevich, 1999; Kim et al., 2019).”
Influential(2010) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(10)53003-2 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Effects of repetition as a function of study-phase retrieval
Thios, S. J., & D'Agostino, P. R. (1976) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/0022-5371(76)90047-5 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Spacing repetitions over 1 week
Glenberg, A. M., & Lehmann, T. S. (1980) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03213772 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Distributed practice and procedural memory consolidation in musicians’ skill learning
Simmons, A. L. (2012) · Journal of Research in Music Education · doi:10.1177/0022429411424798 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Implementing distributed practice in statistics courses: Benefits for retention and transfer.
Ebersbach, M., & Barzagar Nazari, K. (2020) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/h0101860 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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Silva Sánchez, M., Lainez Quinde, G. A., & Zambrano Vélez, W. A. (2026) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci16060962
“Other operative techniques include the use of “microlearning capsules” for language teaching and musical sequences designed to leverage 24 h sleep-dependent consolidation intervals (Katz et al., 2021; Katz & Wiseheart, 2025; Melnikova & Patrina, 2025; Simmons, 2012).”
Influential
- Authors
- Katz, J. J., & Wiseheart, M.
- Affiliations
- York University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Katz, Joel J
- Venue
- Psychology of Music
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2025-12-30
- ISSN
- 0305-7356 (ISSN-L)
- 1741-3087
- OpenAlex
- W7117571770
- Cited by
- 1
- References
- 9
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1
- FWCI
- 0.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Psychology of Music (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- Funders
- Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (435-2020-1256)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Music › Diverse Music Education Insights
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Music Perception
- Keywords
- spaced learning, distributed learning, long-term memory, massed practice, spacing effect, music learning, structural constraints, nonverbal memory, retrieval cues
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