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Perceived triggers of primary headache disorders: A meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Objective: To quantitatively synthesize extant literature on perceived triggers of primary headache disorders. Methods: A meta-analytic review of headache trigger survey studies was conducted. Endorsement rates, assessment method, and headache and sample characteristics were extracted from included articles. Separate random-effects models were used to assess trigger endorsement rates and post-hoc meta-regressions examined potential moderator variables. Results: 85 articles from 1958 to 2015 were included, involving 27,122 participants and querying 420 unique triggers (collapsed into 15 categories). Four-fifths (0.81; 95% CI .75 to .86) of individuals with migraine or tension-type headache endorsed at least one trigger. Rates increased with the number of categories queried (OR: 1.18, 1.08–1.30) and year of publication (OR: 1.04, 1.00–1.08). The triggers most commonly endorsed were stress (.58, .53–.63) and sleep (.41, .36–.47). Conclusions: Extreme heterogeneity characterizes the headache trigger literature. Most individuals with a primary headache disorder perceive their attacks to be triggered by one or more precipitants, the most common of which are stress and sleep. However, trigger endorsement is influenced by method of assessment. Enhancing methodological consistency and prioritizing experimental studies would improve our understanding of headache triggers.
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“since emotional distress is regarded as the most important trigger in migraine attacks (6).”
From Efficacy of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for the Prophylaxis of Migraine in Adults: A Three-Armed Randomized Controlled Trial (2022) · cites this paper as [6]
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“Interoceptive awareness localizes to the insula,39 an area of the brain considered a “hub of activity” in migraine, playing a key role in integrating many of the dynamic processes of migraine (sensory, autonomic, cognitive, and emotional).40”
From Mechanisms of mindfulness in patients with migraine: Results of a qualitative study. (2023) · cites this paper as [40]
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“A recent meta-analysis (4) evaluated studies from 1958 to 2015 with 27,000 primary headache patients showing 420 separate external triggers.”
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Vincent Van Gogh and the elusive diagnosis of vestibular migraine
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Self-citationThe Treatment Implications of Forecasting Headache
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The mindful migraine: does mindfulness-based stress reduction relieve episodic migraine?
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Migraine History and Outcomes in Military Pilots and Flight Surgeons
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“Concern for the health of their family members and themselves caused a higher stress level, which is associated with a higher frequency of headaches [33,34].”
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Sîrbu, C. A., Rotaru, A., Antochi, F. A., Pleșa, A., Manole, A. M., & Roceanu, A. M. (2024) · Life · doi:10.3390/life14010087 · Cited by 3
“Other migraine triggers in the MS population were weather change and sleepless nights [14].”
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Evaluating Migraine Trigger Surprisal: Associations with Migraine ActivityPreprint
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“2,3,6 While well-controlled experimental designs could help clarify these associations, they are difficult to implement in everyday life.”
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The physical impact of migraines on female chiropractic patients: A qualitative study
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“The literature revealed that migraineurs described stress as a major contributory factor that triggered and intensified their migraines (Banciu & Bouleanu 2018:28; Connor et al. 2021:40; Pellegrino et al. 2018:1194).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRamon, A. E., Possemato, K., & Beehler, G. P. (2023) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2023.2249169 · Cited by 1
“42,43 These findings highlight the importance of assessing for comorbid psychiatric conditions among veterans with headache disorders in PC.”
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Cigarán‐Méndez, M., Pacho-Hernández, J. C., Fernández-Palacios, F. G., Tejera-Alonso, Á., Valera‐Calero, J. A., Gómez‐Calero, C., Ordás, C., & Fernández‐de‐las‐Peñas, C. (2024) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics14242805 · Cited by 1
Turner, D. P., Caplis, E., Patel, T., & Houle, T. T. (2025) · Entropy · doi:10.3390/e27111102 · Cited by 1
“Three biopsychosocial variables representing stress, sleep, and exercise were selected for dynamic surprisal modeling based on their theoretical relevance to headache risk [3], their practical feasibility for daily assessment, and their distinct measurement properties [2].”
Self-citationVillaruz, R. H., Kuziek, J. W. P., Sjonnesen, K., Craddock, L., Becker, W. J., Harris, A. D., & Orr, S. L. (2025) · Headache The Journal of Head and Face Pain · doi:10.1111/head.15093 · Cited by 1
“23 If Chinooks are associated with increased migraine attack odds in youth, this could potentially lead to using a preventive strategy whereby treatments are taken early before or during Chinooks to mitigate the higher attack risk period.”
Migraine and Alcohol—Is It Really That Harmful?
Zduńska, A., Cegielska, J., Zduński, S., & Domitrz, I. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17223620 · Cited by 1
“In a systematic review of the literature published between 1958 and 2015, including 12,400 participants, 21% of patients identified alcohol as a trigger for migraine [106].”
Wornom, C., Brekke-Kumley, B., Luthra, T., Smith, L. J., & Harrington, J. (2025) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/59951 · Cited by 1
“Another study identified weather as the second most frequently perceived trigger after stress [18].”
Chronotype and primary headaches: What a population‐based study reveals
Vizin, R. C. L., & Kopruszinski, C. M. (2026) · Headache The Journal of Head and Face Pain · doi:10.1111/head.70094 · Cited by 1
“7–9 Although the relationship between chronotype and migraine has been suggested, with evening chronotype more frequent among patients with migraine and associated with increased headache frequency and susceptibility to migraine-related disabilities, 10 available data remain limited and…”
Peles, I., Novack, L., Gordon, M., Sarov, B., Novack, V., & Ifergane, G. (2026) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000214936 · Cited by 1
Aktuelle Entwicklungen in der psychologischen Kopfschmerztherapie
Dresler, T., Klan, T., Kraya, T., & Kropp, P. A. (2018) · Schmerzmedizin · doi:10.1007/s00940-018-0869-4 · Cited by 1
Kopfschmerzen vom Spannungstyp
Diener, H., & Neeb, L. (2023) · InFo Neurologie + Psychiatrie · doi:10.1007/s15005-023-3349-x · Cited by 1
Son, H.-J., Jin, J. O., & Lee, K. H. (2024) · Annals of Child Neurology · doi:10.26815/acn.2024.00486 · Cited by 1
“Environmental and emo-pISSN tional factors, including stress, psychiatric disorders, and adverse childhood experiences, play key roles in triggering these head-aches [2].”
BackgroundJohnson, K. T., Zawadzki, M. J., Widome, R., & Kavanaugh, M. S. (2025) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-025-10374-x · Cited by 1
Vgontzas, A. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-86923-5_19 · Cited by 1
Sullivan, D., Bell, C., Bonham, M. D., Boschen, M. J., & Martin, P. R. (2020) · Clinical Psychologist · doi:10.1111/cp.12227 · Cited by 1
“55%, likely higher given the psychiatric comorbidities such as stress, sleep problems, anxiety, and depression are common headache triggers (Pellegrino et al., 2018).”
Trigger Identification and Elimination
Kaniecki, R. G. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-71513-7_3 · Cited by 1
Study Design and Measurement Methods for Data Collection
Turner, D. P. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-81949-1_6 · Cited by 1
Self-citationHeyer, G. L., & Mack, K. J. (2017) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000004813 · Cited by 1
“Most individuals with a primary headache disorder perceive triggers for their attacks, and emotional stress is the trigger most commonly reported.(1) Daily perceived stress correlates temporally with daily migraine activity.”
BackgroundStress and migraine: I know it when I see it
Seng, E. K. (2021) · Headache The Journal of Head and Face Pain · doi:10.1111/head.14200 · Cited by 1
“3 Thus, there are three distinct phenomena to which the term “stress” may refer: (1) a stressful event (assessed by stressful event inventories4,5), (2) whether the stressful event exceeds perceived resources to cope (assessed by perceived stress scales6), and (3) the body's physiological response to the stressful eve…”
BackgroundSuraj, T. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5160698 · Cited by 1
Wu, J., Al‐Hassany, L., Castaldo, M., Chiang, C., Labastida‐Ramírez, A., Messina, R., Pan, L. H., Vurallı, D., Wells-Gatnik, W. D., Yener, S. M., et al. (2026) · The Journal of Headache and Pain · doi:10.1186/s10194-026-02294-2 · Cited by 1
Subjektive und objektive Trigger bei Kopfschmerzen
Evers, S. (2018) · DNP - Der Neurologe und Psychiater · doi:10.1007/s15202-018-2016-4
Aktuelle Entwicklungen in der psychologischen Kopfschmerztherapie
Dresler, T., Klan, T., Kraya, T., & Kropp, P. A. (2019) · CME · doi:10.1007/s11298-019-6902-7
Aerobic exercise training for migraine prevention: A trigger-based analysis
Oliveira, A. B., Swerts, D. B., & Peres, M. F. P. (2019) · Headache Medicine/Revista Headache Medicine · doi:10.5935/2178-7468.20190018
Engstrøm, M., & Rains, J. C. (2020) · Headache · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-56538-1_5
Do we know all the triggers of migraine?
Silva‐Néto, R. P. (2019) · Headache Medicine/Revista Headache Medicine · doi:10.48208/headachemed.2019.24
Diamond, J. A., & Natbony, L. R. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-71513-7_6
Brief Introduction to Primary Headaches and Overview of the Book
Turner, D. P. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-81949-1_1
Self-citationIntroduction to Triggers and Causes
Turner, D. P. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-81949-1_2
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Pellegrino, A. B. W., Davis-Martin, R. E., Houle, T. T., Turner, D. P., & Smitherman, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Hartford HealthCare Headache Center, West Hartford, CT, USA
- University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School (US)
- Massachusetts General Hospital (US)
- University of Mississippi (US)
- Corresponding author
- Smitherman, Todd A
- ORCID
- Venue
- Cephalalgia
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2017-08-20
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1188-1198
- ISSN
- 0333-1024 (ISSN-L)
- 1468-2982
- PMC
- PMC8544028
- OpenAlex
- W2746815301
- Cited by
- 288
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 75 · 2023: 29 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 5
- FWCI
- 2.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Cephalalgia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS065257)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Migraine and Headache Studies
- Health Sciences › Dentistry › Oral Surgery › Temporomandibular Joint Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Traumatic Brain Injury Research
- Keywords
- headache triggers, primary headache, migraine, tension-type headache, stress, sleep
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Headache Disorders, Primary
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