Long-Term Outcomes of ADHD: Academic Achievement and Performance
Abstract
Objective: The aim of this study was to synthesize published data regarding long-term effects of ADHD on information learned (measured via achievement tests) and success within the school environment (academic performance). Method: A systematic search identified 176 studies (1980-2012) of long-term (≥2 years) academic outcomes with ADHD. Results: Achievement test outcomes (79%) and academic performance outcomes (75%) were worse in individuals with untreated ADHD compared with non-ADHD controls, also when IQ difference was controlled (72% and 81%, respectively). Improvement in both outcome groups was associated with treatment, more often for achievement test scores (79%) than academic performance (42%), also when IQ was controlled (100% and 57%, respectively). More achievement test and academic performance outcomes improved with multimodal (100% and 67%, respectively) than pharmacological (75% and 33%) or non-pharmacological (75% and 50%) treatment alone. Conclusion: ADHD adversely affects long-term academic outcomes. A greater proportion of achievement test outcomes improved with treatment compared with academic performance. Both improved most consistently with multimodal treatment.
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Untreated ADHD often leads to severe and chronic functional impairments in major life domains.
“Especially, untreated ADHD often leads to severe and chronic functional impairments in major life domains, e.g., education, work, relationships, friendships, and leisure activities (Able et al. 2007; Arnold et al. 2020; Barkley 2006; Fayyad et al. 2007; Halmøy et al. 2009; Holst and Thorell 2020).”
From ADHD and associated psychopathology in older adults in a German community sample (2023) · cites this paper as Arnold et al. 2020
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- Authors
- Arnold, L. E., Hodgkins, P., Kahle, J., Madhoo, M., & Kewley, G.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Takeda (United States) (US)
- BPS International, San Diego, CA, USA
- Behavioural Health Medical Strategy, Shire, Wayne, PA, USA
- Learning Assessment & Neurocare Centre, West Sussex, UK
- Corresponding author
- Kahle, Jennifer
- Venue
- Journal of Attention Disorders
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2015-01-12
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 73-85
- ISSN
- 1087-0547 (ISSN-L)
- 1557-1246
- OpenAlex
- W2038732840
- Cited by
- 516
- References
- 12
- Citations by year
- 2026: 84 · 2025: 87 · 2024: 86 · 2023: 76 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 7
- FWCI
- 10.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Attention Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Ohio State University
- Johns Hopkins University
- University of Oregon
- U.S. Public Health Service
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Behavioral and Psychological Studies
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, academic performance, long-term outcomes, untreated ADHD, ADHD treatment, multimodal therapy, pharmacotherapy, non-pharmacological treatment, IQ, achievement test scores
- MeSH terms
- Academic Performance, Academic Success, Achievement, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Humans, Learning
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