Activities of daily living and working memory in pediatric attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

“recent letter and dropping the fourth letter back and then saying the new string of three letters out loud (Miyake et al., 2000).”

“In Tier 2, we conducted conditional effects analyses using PROCESS (Model 4; Hayes, 2013) with 10,000 bias-corrected, bootstrapped samples to analyze the relations among working memory, ADHD symptoms, and ADLs (Preacher et al., 2007).”

“ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting approximately 5% of school-age children (Polanczyk et al., 2007; Polanczyk et al., 2014).”

“Working memory updating tasks involve the constant monitoring and rapid addition/deletion of working memory contents (Miyake & Friedman, 2012).”

“Partial-credit unit scoring (i.e., stimuli correct per trial) was used to index overall working memory performance at each set size 3–6 as recommended (Conway et al., 2005).”

“ADLs have historically been used as a classifier to assess disability status among older adults (Katz, 1983); however, they are becoming more commonly used in assessing functional impairment in children as well (Blank et al.”

“, 2000), refers to the active, top-down manipulation of information held in short-term memory (Baddeley, 2007), and includes”

“…to the active, top-down manipulation of information held in short-term memory (Baddeley, 2007), and includes interrelated functions of the mid-lateral prefrontal cortex and interconnected networks that involve dual-processing, updating, and reordering (Nee & Brown, 2013; Wager & Smith, 2003).”

“However, given the well documented heterogeneity of executive functioning among children with ADHD (Castellanos & Tannock, 2002; Kofler et al., 2019), it will be important for future work to consider the unique contributions of each executive function in addition to working memory as they relate to…”

“ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting approximately 5% of school-age children (Polanczyk et al., 2007; Polanczyk et al., 2014).”

“…evidence indicates cortical underdevelopment in working memory-related brain regions in children with ADHD (for review, see Rapport et al., 2013) while longitudinal evidence indicates 3–5 year delays in cortical maturation of these regions in pediatric ADHD samples (Shaw et al., 2007).”

“Children with any current ADHD presentation specifier were eligible given the instability of ADHD subtypes (Lahey et al., 2005; Valo & Tannock, 2010; Willcutt et al., 2012).”

“However, pediatric attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with broad and replicated evidence linking it with executive function impairments, particularly in working memory (Biederman et al., 2004; Kofler et al., 2018; Nigg et al., 2005).”

“However, pediatric attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with broad and replicated evidence linking it with executive function impairments, particularly in working memory (Biederman et al., 2004; Kofler et al., 2018; Nigg et al., 2005).”

“In the current sample, IQ was not included as a covariate based on compelling statistical, methodological, and conceptual rationale against covarying IQ when investigating cognitive processes in ADHD (Dennis et al., 2009).”

“Initial definitions of ADLs encompassed a wide range of functions including locomotion, traveling, dressing, toileting, and eating (Mlinac & Feng, 2016).”

“Nonetheless, this conceptualization differs from models in the neurology literature, where illnesses such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and HIV are acquired illnesses that predict declines in working memory, which then in turn predict declines in ADL performance (Jekel et al., 2015; Ranhoff, 1997; Woods et al., 2008).”

“Thus, these findings highlight an additional domain of functional impairment for children with ADHD (Aduen et al., 2018; Bunford et al., 2014; Hoza, 2007; Kofler et al., 2018; Simone et al., 2018), while suggesting that directly treating ADL difficulties may not be the most effective strategy for…”

“Previous literature indicates that the phenotypic expression of ADHD-related inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive behaviors may be driven, in part, by deficits in working memory (Barkley, 1997; Karalunas et al., 2017; Kasper et al., 2012; Kofler et al., 2015; Rapport et al., 2009), and that deficits in working memory…”

“To date, the literature on ADLs in pediatric ADHD has primarily examined children’s disruptive behaviors and the quality of parentchild interactions during the performance of ADLs (Theule et al., 2013; Whalen et al., 2006), rather than these children’s skill at independently performing ADLs.”

“Children with any current ADHD presentation specifier were eligible given the instability of ADHD subtypes (Lahey et al., 2005; Valo & Tannock, 2010; Willcutt et al., 2012).”

“Cross-sectional evidence indicates cortical underdevelopment in working memory-related brain regions in children with ADHD (for review, see Rapport et al., 2013) while longitudinal evidence indicates 3–5 year delays in cortical maturation of these regions in pediatric ADHD samples (Shaw et al.,…”

“…impairments and academic outcomes has been given considerable attention in the pediatric ADHD literature with studies establishing an association (Arnold et al., 2020; Friedman et al., 2017; Simone et al., 2018), as well as causal evidence (Kofler, Spiegel et al., 2019), between working memory…”

“…with ADHD have working memory deficits (Fosco et al., 2020; Kasper et al., 2012); (2) adults with ADHD exhibit difficulties performing ADLs (Barkley & Murphy, 2010; Stavro et al., 2007), with these difficulties linked with their deficits in executive functions such as working memory…”

“neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disorder, exhibit difficulties with ADLs (Gilotty et al., 2002; Kottorp et al., 2003) and that measures of executive functioning predict ADL impairments in adults with ADHD both 480 L.”

“tion of children with ADHD exhibiting deficits in working memory abilities at a prevalence rate of 62% to 85% (Fosco et al., 2020; Karalunas et al., 2017; Kasper et al., 2012; Kofler et al., 2018; Sonuga-Barke et al., 2008).”

“…study, we selected a global, parent-report measure of ADLs because (a) adults with ADHD demonstrate difficulties with daily living skills and ADLs (Barkley & Fischer, 2011; Barkley & Murphy, 2010), and (b) the concurrent validity of these scales has been demonstrated relative to global as well as…”

“…rather than domain-general cognitive domains may differentially influence an individual’s ability to perform ADLs (e.g., Razani et al., 2007; Royall et al., 2007), and prior research has shown than individuals’ level of ADL performance differs even within samples of individuals with…”

“occurring conditions are common in ADHD (Wilens et al., 2002) and therefore inclusion of children with these comorbidities was important to maximize external validity and generalizability of the larger study.”

“…impairments in at least one executive function, with the largest proportion of children with ADHD exhibiting deficits in working memory abilities at a prevalence rate of 62% to 85% (Fosco et al., 2020; Karalunas et al., 2017; Kasper et al., 2012; Kofler et al., 2018; Sonuga-Barke et al., 2008).”

“005), suggesting that approximately 38% of children with ADHD are perceived by their caregivers as demonstrating ADL impairments based on converting this effect size into the proportion of population non-overlap (Zakzanis, 2001).”

“…degrees of cognitive decline in geriatric and adult ADHD samples (Barkley & Fischer, 2011; Barkley & Murphy, 2010; Jekel et al., 2015; Ranhoff, 1997; Stavro et al., 2007) and that working memory is a significant predictor of ADL performance (Cloutier et al., 2017; Vaughan & Giovanello, 2010).”

“…mild and severe degrees of cognitive decline (Jekel et al., 2015; Ranhoff, 1997; Vaughan & Giovanello, 2010; Woods et al., 2008), with more severe impairments in cognitive functioning relating to increased impairments in ADL performance (Arling & Williams, 2003; Tomaszewski Farias et al., 2009).”

“However, given the well documented heterogeneity of executive functioning among children with ADHD (Castellanos & Tannock, 2002; Kofler et al., 2019), it will be important for future work to consider the unique contributions of each executive function in addition to working memory as they relate to children’s performa…”

“Though ADLs have been widely studied in aging populations (Martyr & Clare, 2012), the literature has only recently begun to examine ADLs in pediatric populations.”

“…phonological and visuospatial working memory tests correctly classify children with versus without ADHD at similar rates as ADHD rating scales (Tarle et al., 2017), and predict hyperactivity (Rapport et al., 2009), inattention (Kofler et al., 2010), and impulsivity (Raiker et al., 2012).”

“…executive functions, particularly working memory, and impairments in ADLs in children with neurodevelopmental disorders is limited, with most studies examining this relation in children with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability (Duncan & Bishop, 2015; Gantschnig et al., 2013).”

“…and/or neurological disorders are associated with fine and gross motor difficulties rather than cognitive functioning (Magalhães et al., 2011; Summers et al., 2008; Volman et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2012), and highlight the potential for different developmental pathways to lead to the…”

“Of note, the cross-sectional design precludes testing of competing models regarding directionality of effects (i.e., reversing arrows does not distinguish plausible models; Thoemmes, 2015).”

“© 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group (Thames et al., 2011; Vaughan & Giovanello, 2010; Woods et al., 2008).”

“…in children with chromosomal and/or neurological disorders are associated with fine and gross motor difficulties rather than cognitive functioning (Magalhães et al., 2011; Summers et al., 2008; Volman et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2012), and highlight the potential for different developmental…”

“Children with any current ADHD presentation specifier were eligible given the instability of ADHD subtypes (Lahey et al., 2005; Valo & Tannock, 2010; Willcutt et al., 2012).”

“Barkley & Murphy, 2010); and (b) childhood reflects the developmental period during which foundational ADLs are explicitly taught and learned (Demetriou et al., 2018; Kingdon et al., 2016).”

“…base suggests that specific rather than domain-general cognitive domains may differentially influence an individual’s ability to perform ADLs (e.g., Razani et al., 2007; Royall et al., 2007), and prior research has shown than individuals’ level of ADL performance differs even within samples of…”

“…skill-sets (e.g. social skills training) in children with ADHD may be due to the fact that these children possess the ageexpected skills but instead have difficulty implementing these skills consistently due to working memory and/or attention difficulties (Aduen et al., 2018; Kofler et al., 2018).”

“…degrees of cognitive decline in geriatric and adult ADHD samples (Barkley & Fischer, 2011; Barkley & Murphy, 2010; Jekel et al., 2015; Ranhoff, 1997; Stavro et al., 2007) and that working memory is a significant predictor of ADL performance (Cloutier et al., 2017; Vaughan & Giovanello, 2010).”

“To date, the literature on ADLs in pediatric ADHD has primarily examined children’s disruptive behaviors and the quality of parentchild interactions during the performance of ADLs (Theule et al., 2013; Whalen et al., 2006), rather than these children’s skill at independently performing ADLs.”

“…skill-sets (e.g. social skills training) in children with ADHD may be due to the fact that these children possess the ageexpected skills but instead have difficulty implementing these skills consistently due to working memory and/or attention difficulties (Aduen et al., 2018; Kofler et al., 2018).”

“, 2008); however, only more recently have ADLs been investigated in children with neurodevelopmental disorders (Cook et al., 2018; Duncan & Bishop, 2015; Thaler et al., 2012).”

“© 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group (Thames et al., 2011; Vaughan & Giovanello, 2010; Woods et al., 2008).”

“tion of children with ADHD exhibiting deficits in working memory abilities at a prevalence rate of 62% to 85% (Fosco et al., 2020; Karalunas et al., 2017; Kasper et al., 2012; Kofler et al., 2018; Sonuga-Barke et al., 2008).”

“dressing, personal hygiene) are more commonly executed in younger children whereas adolescents increasingly perform more complex ADLs independently (e.g. preparing meals, completing household chores; James et al., 2014; Summers et al., 2008).”

“Yet, very limited studies have examined the relation between working memory and functional outcomes outside of the academic and peer domains, despite early evidence of working memory’s association with family functioning (Mares et al., 2007; Kofler, Raiker, et al., 2016).”

“These findings contrast with evidence indicating that ADL difficulties in children with chromosomal and/or neurological disorders are associated with fine and gross motor difficulties rather than cognitive functioning (Magalhães et al., 2011; Summers et al., 2008; Volman et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2012), and highlight…”

“Six trials per set size were administered in randomized/unpredictable order (3–6 stimuli/ trial; 1 stimuli/second) as recommended (Kofler et al., 2016).”

“Reliability and validity evidence includes high internal consistency (α = .81-.97) and 1-3-week test-retest reliability (.76-.90; Kofler et al., 2019; Sarver et al., 2015), and expected relations with criterion working memory complex span (r = .69) and updating tasks (r = .61) (Wells et al., 2018).”

“…to the active, top-down manipulation of information held in short-term memory (Baddeley, 2007), and includes interrelated functions of the mid-lateral prefrontal cortex and interconnected networks that involve dual-processing, updating, and reordering (Nee & Brown, 2013; Wager & Smith, 2003).”

“These findings contrast with evidence indicating that ADL difficulties in children with chromosomal and/or neurological disorders are associated with fine and gross motor difficulties rather than cognitive functioning (Magalhães et al., 2011; Summers et al., 2008; Volman et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2012), and highlight…”

“…domains may differentially influence an individual’s ability to perform ADLs (e.g., Razani et al., 2007; Royall et al., 2007), and prior research has shown than individuals’ level of ADL performance differs even within samples of individuals with intellectual disability (Lifshitz et al., 2008).”

“It is important to investigate ADLs in this population given the well-established link between executive functioning and ADLs (Jekel et al., 2015; De Paula et al., 2015; Ranhoff, 1997; Vaughan & Giovanello, 2010; Woods et al., 2008).”

“…outcomes has been given considerable attention in the pediatric ADHD literature with studies establishing an association (Arnold et al., 2020; Friedman et al., 2017; Simone et al., 2018), as well as causal evidence (Kofler, Spiegel et al., 2019), between working memory and underachievement…”

“…skill-sets (e.g. social skills training) in children with ADHD may be due to the fact that these children possess the ageexpected skills but instead have difficulty implementing these skills consistently due to working memory and/or attention difficulties (Aduen et al., 2018; Kofler et al., 2018).”

“, 2008); however, only more recently have ADLs been investigated in children with neurodevelopmental disorders (Cook et al., 2018; Duncan & Bishop, 2015; Thaler et al., 2012).”

“Giovanello, 2010) and that training working memory abilities may positively impact ADL performance in older adults (Cantarella et al., 2017).”

“Reliability and validity evidence includes high internal consistency (α = .81-.97) and 1-3-week test-retest reliability (.76-.90; Kofler et al., 2019; Sarver et al., 2015), and expected relations with criterion working memory complex span (r = .69) and updating tasks (r = .61) (Wells et al., 2018).”

“In contrast, research investigating ADL skills in neurotypical children suggests that age is the most significant predictor of ADL performance (Rosenberg, 2015).”

“, 2018), and large magnitude ADHD/NonADHD between group differences (Fosco et al., 2020; Kofler et al., 2018).”

“Furthermore, research on age-related changes in ADL abilities (Hayase et al., 2004) emphasizes the utility of ADL definitions that encompass skills in accordance with developmental age.”

“To address these omissions, the current study combined cross-informant ratings of ADHD symptoms and ADL performance with children’s performance on a battery of well-validated working memory tests (Alderson et al., 2013; Kofler et al., 2018; Rapport et al., 2009; Miyake et al., 2000) to examine working memory’s associa…”

“…et al., 2012; Kofler et al., 2015; Rapport et al., 2009), and that deficits in working memory in children with ADHD are associated with functional outcomes at school (Friedman et al., 2017, 2018; Kofler, Sarver et al., 2018; Simone et al., 2018) and with peers (Hoza, 2007; Kofler et al., 2018).”

“Performance was monitored at all times by the examiner, who was stationed just out of the child’s view to provide a structured setting while minimizing performance improvements associated with examiner demand characteristics (Gomez & Sanson, 1994).”

“…been given considerable attention in the pediatric ADHD literature with studies establishing an association (Arnold et al., 2020; Friedman et al., 2017; Simone et al., 2018), as well as causal evidence (Kofler, Spiegel et al., 2019), between working memory and underachievement in reading and math.”

“neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disorder, exhibit difficulties with ADLs (Gilotty et al., 2002; Kottorp et al., 2003) and that measures of executive functioning predict ADL impairments in adults with ADHD both 480 L.”

“…been used as a classifier to assess disability status among older adults (Katz, 1983); however, they are becoming more commonly used in assessing functional impairment in children as well (Blank et al., 2008; Cook et al., 2018; Duncan & Bishop, 2015; James et al., 2014; Thaler et al., 2012).”

“…phonological and visuospatial working memory tests correctly classify children with versus without ADHD at similar rates as ADHD rating scales (Tarle et al., 2017), and predict hyperactivity (Rapport et al., 2009), inattention (Kofler et al., 2010), and impulsivity (Raiker et al., 2012).”

“…mild and severe degrees of cognitive decline (Jekel et al., 2015; Ranhoff, 1997; Vaughan & Giovanello, 2010; Woods et al., 2008), with more severe impairments in cognitive functioning relating to increased impairments in ADL performance (Arling & Williams, 2003; Tomaszewski Farias et al., 2009).”

“Previous literature indicates that the phenotypic expression of ADHD-related inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive behaviors may be driven, in part, by deficits in working memory (Barkley, 1997; Karalunas et al., 2017; Kasper et al., 2012; Kofler et al., 2015; Rapport et al., 2009), and that deficits in working memory…”

“…executive functions, particularly working memory, and impairments in ADLs in children with neurodevelopmental disorders is limited, with most studies examining this relation in children with autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability (Duncan & Bishop, 2015; Gantschnig et al., 2013).”

“Task data from subsets of the current battery have been reported for subsets of the current sample to examine conceptually unrelated hypotheses in prior reports (please see Irwin et al., 2020).”

“…and measures of cognition suggest that deficits in ADLs are associated with both mild and severe degrees of cognitive decline (Jekel et al., 2015; Ranhoff, 1997; Vaughan & Giovanello, 2010; Woods et al., 2008), with more severe impairments in cognitive functioning relating to increased…”

“However, emerging evidence suggests that this executive function heterogeneity might prove fruitful for understanding heterogeneity in functional impairments for children with ADHD and/or ASD 8,51,88–90 .”

“The performance of ADL in the ADHD group was lower than that of neurotypical participants, which is consistent with findings from other studies [38,39].”

“, 2011), and activities of daily living (Irwin et al., 2021).”

“ADHD is associated with various structural and functional abnormalities in the hippocampus, a brain region known for its importance in memory functions (Rapport et al., 2008; Kasper et al., 2012; Irwin et al., 2021).”

“Working memory is a foundational cognitive ability significantly linked to ADHD symptoms [113], and its improvement is known to positively influence the performance of daily activities [118].”

“Elas também geralmente enfrentam dificuldades em atividades co-tidianas como escovar os dentes, vestir-se e selecionar alimentos saudáveis [16, 28, 57].”

“In addition, children who exhibited pre-dominately inattentive symptoms faced more challenges than children who exhibited predominately hyperactive symptoms (Irwin et al., 2021).”

“10 In addition, compromised sensory integration affects the ability to process and respond appropriately to sensory stimuli.”

“These studies suggest adults with ADHD may not have learned critical DLS strategies during childhood and adolescence when foundational activities of daily living are explicitly taught and learned (Irwin et al., 2021).”

“Furthermore, research specifically links working memory deficits to inattentive symptoms and subsequent functional impairment, but not to hyperactive/impulsive symptoms [33, 34].”

“In daily life, children with ADHD face significant challenges related to routine organization, self-regulation, and the execution of everyday activities, such as personal hygiene, eating, and completing school assignments [Coghill et al., 2008; Irwin et al., 2021; Shuai et al., 2017].”