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Cited by 120SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 ResearchGenomics and Phylogenetic StudiesMachine Learning in Bioinformatics

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GenSLMs: Genome-scale language models reveal SARS-CoV-2 evolutionary dynamics

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Zvyagin, Maxim, Brace, Alexander, Hippe, Kyle, Deng, Yuntian, Zhang, Bin, Bohorquez, Cindy Orozco, Clyde, Austin, Kale, Bharat, Perez-Rivera, Danilo, Ma, Heng, Mann, Carla M., Irvin, Michael, Ozgulbas, Defne G., Vassilieva, Natalia, Pauloski, James Gregory, Ward, Logan, Hayot-Sasson, Valerie, Emani, Murali, Foreman, Sam, Xie, Zhen, Lin, Diangen, Shukla, Maulik, Nie, Weili, Romero, Josh, Dallago, Christian, Vahdat, Arash, Xiao, Chaowei, Gibbs, Thomas, Foster, Ian, Davis, James J., Papka, Michael E., Brettin, Thomas, Stevens, Rick, Anandkumar, Anima, Vishwanath, Venkatram, Ramanathan, Arvind·2023·The International Journal of High Performance Computing Applications
DOI 10.1177/10943420231201154PMC PMC9709791

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Abstract

We seek to transform how new and emergent variants of pandemic-causing viruses, specifically SARS-CoV-2, are identified and classified. By adapting large language models (LLMs) for genomic data, we build genome-scale language models (GenSLMs) which can learn the evolutionary landscape of SARS-CoV-2 genomes. By pre-training on over 110 million prokaryotic gene sequences and fine-tuning a SARS-CoV-2-specific model on 1.5 million genomes, we show that GenSLMs can accurately and rapidly identify variants of concern. Thus, to our knowledge, GenSLMs represents one of the first whole-genome scale foundation models which can generalize to other prediction tasks. We demonstrate scaling of GenSLMs on GPU-based supercomputers and AI-hardware accelerators utilizing 1.63 Zettaflops in training runs with a sustained performance of 121 PFLOPS in mixed precision and peak of 850 PFLOPS. We present initial scientific insights from examining GenSLMs in tracking evolutionary dynamics of SARS-CoV-2, paving the path to realizing this on large biological data.

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Figure 1: Overview of GenSLM models for predictive modeling of SARS-CoV-2 evolution. The inputs to GenSLM are nucleotide sequences, encoded at the codon level (every three nucleotide represents a codon; hence the 20 natural amino acid language is described by 64 codons). These inputs are successively fed into transformer blocks (referred to as layers (Li)), which ultimately results in learning a semantic embedding z→ space from which one may obtain the probability of any given sequence token p(X→i∣X→[N]\{i}), where N represents the sequence length and 𝑖 represents a particular position in the entire genome.
Figure 1: Overview of GenSLM models for predictive modeling of SARS-CoV-2 evolution. The inputs to GenSLM are nucleotide sequences, encoded at the codon level (every three nucleotide represents a codon; hence the 20 natural amino acid language is described by 64 codons). These inputs are successively fed into transformer blocks (referred to as layers (Li)), which ultimately results in learning a semantic embedding z→ space from which one may obtain the probability of any given sequence token p(X→i∣X→[N]\{i}), where N represents the sequence length and 𝑖 represents a particular position in the entire genome.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Figure 2: GenSLMs learned latent space describes biologically meaningful properties for SARS-CoV-2 genomes. (A) The embeddings from GenSLMs are visualized with t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) and each gene sequence is represented as a dot in the 2D plot. We paint each sequence by its variant ID – although we have more than 515 PANGO (Rambaut et al., 2020) lineages represented in the data, we only show those with WHO designated labels. (B) The latent space can also be painted with the MAFFT-determined alignment score (Yamada et al., 2016) with respect to an Omicron genome; clustering in the distance measures is clearly visible. Visualizing the sequence log-likelihood (blue bar) and the cross-protein attention (orange lines) from (C) Delta and (D) Omicron SARS-CoV-2 strains highlights how different the co-evolutionary patterns are in these lineages. It is interesting to note that while the Spike protein from Delta strain shows coupling to nsp3, nsp5, and other proteins, these couplings are not observed in the Omicron strain.
Figure 2: GenSLMs learned latent space describes biologically meaningful properties for SARS-CoV-2 genomes. (A) The embeddings from GenSLMs are visualized with t-distributed stochastic neighbor embedding (t-SNE) and each gene sequence is represented as a dot in the 2D plot. We paint each sequence by its variant ID – although we have more than 515 PANGO (Rambaut et al., 2020) lineages represented in the data, we only show those with WHO designated labels. (B) The latent space can also be painted with the MAFFT-determined alignment score (Yamada et al., 2016) with respect to an Omicron genome; clustering in the distance measures is clearly visible. Visualizing the sequence log-likelihood (blue bar) and the cross-protein attention (orange lines) from (C) Delta and (D) Omicron SARS-CoV-2 strains highlights how different the co-evolutionary patterns are in these lineages. It is interesting to note that while the Spike protein from Delta strain shows coupling to nsp3, nsp5, and other proteins, these couplings are not observed in the Omicron strain.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Figure 3: Illustration of diffusion-based hierarchical modeling. To predict a codon (such as TAA), we use both the previous codons within the context window (we use size 3 shown in green for illustration) and the high-level representations z.
Figure 3: Illustration of diffusion-based hierarchical modeling. To predict a codon (such as TAA), we use both the previous codons within the context window (we use size 3 shown in green for illustration) and the high-level representations z.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Figure 4: Diffusion-based hierarchical modeling of SARS-CoV-2 genomes results in generation of sequences that captures the correct context of various open reading frames (ORFs). (A) Comparison of statistics measured on generated sequences and on real data for the ORFs. Diffusion-based hierarchical LM has a global high-level plan whereas the baseline can only take into account the previous 1023 codons. (B) Generated sequences (light blue) from the model overlaid on the phylogenetic tree demonstrate that these sequences are similar to observed strains.
Figure 4: Diffusion-based hierarchical modeling of SARS-CoV-2 genomes results in generation of sequences that captures the correct context of various open reading frames (ORFs). (A) Comparison of statistics measured on generated sequences and on real data for the ORFs. Diffusion-based hierarchical LM has a global high-level plan whereas the baseline can only take into account the previous 1023 codons. (B) Generated sequences (light blue) from the model overlaid on the phylogenetic tree demonstrate that these sequences are similar to observed strains.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Figure 5: Conceptual overview of our workflow. A “Thinker” orchestrates data flow between two applications, namely the sequence generator and the Bayesian optimization to drive the generated sequences towards a target property using reward-guided beam search, where μ represents the mixing constant used to balance the reward function against the log likelihood of generating the next token.
Figure 5: Conceptual overview of our workflow. A “Thinker” orchestrates data flow between two applications, namely the sequence generator and the Bayesian optimization to drive the generated sequences towards a target property using reward-guided beam search, where μ represents the mixing constant used to balance the reward function against the log likelihood of generating the next token.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Figure 6: (A) Scaling results on Polaris and Selene systems for MSL=2048; (B) Scaling behavior of DDP vs. DeepSpeed runs on Selene (C) Scaling results on Polaris and Selene systems for MSL=10240;
Figure 6: (A) Scaling results on Polaris and Selene systems for MSL=2048; (B) Scaling behavior of DDP vs. DeepSpeed runs on Selene (C) Scaling results on Polaris and Selene systems for MSL=10240;CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Figure 7: Workflow utilization measured by the number of active workers (applications actively serving requests) as a function of workflow runtime measured on 224 nodes of Polaris (896 A100 GPUs). The warm-able application design realizes 97% utilization, enabling 1.9X more sequences to be generated compared to a cold start baseline.
Figure 7: Workflow utilization measured by the number of active workers (applications actively serving requests) as a function of workflow runtime measured on 224 nodes of Polaris (896 A100 GPUs). The warm-able application design realizes 97% utilization, enabling 1.9X more sequences to be generated compared to a cold start baseline.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central

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Cites

Show all 57 references

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Metadata

Authors
Zvyagin, M., Brace, A., Hippe, K., Deng, Y., Zhang, B., Bohorquez, C. O., Clyde, A., Kale, B., Perez-Rivera, D., Ma, H., Mann, C. M., Irvin, M., Ozgulbas, D. G., Vassilieva, N., Pauloski, J. G., Ward, L., Hayot-Sasson, V., Emani, M., Foreman, S., Xie, Z., Lin, D., Shukla, M., Nie, W., Romero, J., Dallago, C., Vahdat, A., Xiao, C., Gibbs, T., Foster, I., Davis, J. J., Papka, M. E., Brettin, T., Stevens, R., Anandkumar, A., Vishwanath, V., & Ramanathan, A.
Affiliations
  • Argonne National Laboratory (US)
  • Harvard University (US)
  • Cerebras Systems (United States) (US)
  • Northern Illinois University (US)
  • Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
  • University of Chicago (US)
  • Data Science and Learning Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, IL, USA
  • Nvidia (United States) (US)
  • NVIDIA Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA
  • University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
Corresponding author
  • Vishwanath, Venkatram
  • Ramanathan, Arvind
ORCID
Venue
The International Journal of High Performance Computing Applications
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2023-10-27
Volume
37
Issue
6
Pages
683-705
ISSN
  • 0890-2720 (ISSN-L)
  • 1094-3420
  • 1741-2846
DOI
10.1177/10943420231201154
PMC
PMC9709791
OpenAlex
W4387994442
Cited by
120
References
57
Citations by year
2026: 30 · 2025: 40 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 14
FWCI
24.63
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • The International Journal of High Performance Computing Applications (publishedVersion)
  • bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Espace ÉTS (ETS) (submittedVersion)
Funders
Exascale Computing Project
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Genomics and Phylogenetic Studies
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Machine Learning in Bioinformatics
Keywords
SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19 variants of concern, variant identification, viral evolution, foundation models, mixed-precision training

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