Cited by 495Psychometric Methodologies and TestingBusiness Strategies and Management ResearchAccounting and Organizational Management

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 96 of the 97 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

The Fallacy of Formative Measurement

Edwards, Jeffrey R.·2011·Organizational Research Methods

DOI 10.1177/1094428110378369

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

In management research, there is a growing trend toward formative measurement, in which measures are treated as causes of constructs. Formative measurement can be contrasted with reflective measurement, in which constructs are specified as causes of measures. Although recent work seems to suggest that formative measurement is a viable alternative to reflective measurement, the emerging enthusiasm for formative measurement is based on conceptions of constructs, measures, and causality that are difficult to defend. This article critically compares reflective and formative measurement on the basis of dimensionality, internal consistency, identification, measurement error, construct validity, and causality. This comparison leads to the conclusion that the presumed viability of formative measurement is a fallacy, and the objectives of formative measurement can be achieved using alternative models with reflective measures.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/1094428110378369

Cites

96 of 96 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Coefficient Alpha and the Internal Structure of Tests
Cronbach, L. J. (1951) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02310555 · Cited by 43,931
Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411 · Cited by 41,941
Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling
Tabri, N., & Elliott, C. M. (2012) · Canadian Graduate Journal of Sociology and Criminology · doi:10.15353/cgjsc.v1i1.3787 · Cited by 39,094
Untitled work
(1998) · Cited by 36,049
Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences
Cohen, P., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410606266 · Cited by 20,870
Structural Equations with Latent Variables
Bollen, K. A. (1989) · Wiley series in probability and statistics · doi:10.1002/9781118619179 · Cited by 17,944
Structural Equations with Latent Variables.
Clogg, C. C., & Bollen, K. A. (1991) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2072165 · Cited by 17,475
Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix.
Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0046016 · Cited by 17,116
Psychometric theory (2nd ed.).
Sitgreaves, R. (1979) · Contemporary Psychology · doi:10.1037/018882 · Cited by 14,384
Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology.
Hammer, T. H., Anderson, J. F., Gurdon, M. A., Jick, T. D., Petit, A., Stern, R. N., Schwartz, H., Vardi, Y., & Dunnette, M. D. (1977) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2391755 · Cited by 11,947
Research in Organizational Behavior.
Grimes, A. J., Cummings, L. L., & Staw, B. M. (1986) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2392975 · Cited by 11,303
Construct validity in psychological tests.
Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0040957 · Cited by 11,195
Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences
Kemp, F. (2003) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series D (The Statistician) · doi:10.1046/j.1467-9884.2003.t01-2-00383_4.x · Cited by 9,294
Reviews: Lord, Frederic M., and Novick, Melvin R. (with contributions by Allan Birnbaum). Statistical Theories of Mental Test Scores. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1968. xii + 568 pp. $14.95.
Rozeboom, W. W., Lord, F. M., Novick, M. R., & Birnbaum, A. (1969) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.2307/1162101 · Cited by 8,012
Untitled work
(2005) · Cited by 6,097
A Critical Review of Construct Indicators and Measurement Model Misspecification in Marketing and Consumer Research
Jarvis, C. B., MACKENZIE, S. B., & Podsakoff, P. M. (2003) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/376806 · Cited by 5,910
Modern factor analysis
Harman, H. H. (1960) · Cited by 5,148
Multiple regression in behavioral research
Kerlinger, F. N., & Pedhazur, E. J. (1973) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 4,919
Index Construction with Formative Indicators: An Alternative to Scale Development
Diamantopoulos, A., & Winklhofer, H. M. (2001) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmkr.38.2.269.18845 · Cited by 4,852
Two Structural Equation Models: LISREL and PLS Applied to Consumer Exit-Voice Theory
Fornell, C., & Bookstein, F. L. (1982) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.2307/3151718 · Cited by 4,645
What Constitutes a Theoretical Contribution?
Whetten, D. A. (1989) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.1989.4308371 · Cited by 4,467
Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons' responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning.
Messick, S. (1995) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.50.9.741 · Cited by 4,198
Conventional wisdom on measurement: A structural equation perspective.
Bollen, K., & Lennox, R. (1991) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.110.2.305 · Cited by 3,618
Formative Versus Reflective Indicators in Organizational Measure Development: A Comparison and Empirical Illustration
Diamantopoulos, A., & Siguaw, J. A. (2006) · British Journal of Management · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8551.2006.00500.x · Cited by 3,410 · cited 15×
“Construct validity has also been framed in terms of the relationship between the construct and other variables, drawing from principles of nomological validity and criterion-oriented validity (Bollen & Lennox, 1991; Diamantopoulos & Siguaw, 2006; MacKenzie et al., 2005; Podsakoff et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluential
Principal Components Analysis
Dunteman, G. H. (1989) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412985475 · Cited by 2,713
The C-OAR-SE procedure for scale development in marketing
Rossiter, J. R. (2002) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/s0167-8116(02)00097-6 · Cited by 2,478
Organizational Theories: Some Criteria for Evaluation
Bacharach, S. B. (1989) · The Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.1989.4308374 · Cited by 2,305
Structural equations modeling: Fit Indices, sample size, and advanced topics
Iacobucci, D. (2010) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2009.09.003 · Cited by 2,263 · cited 4×
“These criticisms integrate and extend concerns about formative measurement that have begun to emerge (Bagozzi, 2007; Borsboom, 2005; Borsboom, Mellenbergh, & Van Heerden, 2003, 2004; Howell, Breivik, & Wilcox, 2007a, 2007b; Iacobucci, 2010; Wilcox, Howell, & Breivik, 2008).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
RADICAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
von Glasersfeld, E. (2010) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203454220 · Cited by 2,106
Untitled work
(1996) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,012
Multiple Regression in Behavioral Research.
Amick, D. J., Kerlinger, F. N., & Pedhazur, E. J. (1974) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2061986 · Cited by 1,937
What Theory is Not
Sutton, R. I., & Staw, B. M. (1995) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2393788 · Cited by 1,883
Modern Factor Analysis.
Maxwell, A. E., & Harman, H. H. (1968) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (General) · doi:10.2307/2343736 · Cited by 1,853
The problem of measurement model misspecification in behavioral and organizational research and some recommended solutions.
Mackenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P., & Jarvis, C. (2005) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.710 · Cited by 1,819
On the nature and direction of relationships between constructs and measures.
Edwards, J. R., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2000) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.5.2.155 · Cited by 1,747
Self-citation
The Concept of Validity.
Borsboom, D., Mellenbergh, G. J., & van Heerden, J. (2004) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.111.4.1061 · Cited by 1,733
The theoretical status of latent variables.
Borsboom, D., Mellenbergh, G. J., & van Heerden, J. (2003) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.110.2.203 · Cited by 1,566
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Long, J. S. (1983) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412983778 · Cited by 1,526
Statistical analysis of sets of congeneric tests
Jöreskog, K. G. (1971) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02291393 · Cited by 1,481
Objective Tests as Instruments of Psychological Theory
Loevinger, J. (1957) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1957.3.3.635 · Cited by 1,476
Advancing formative measurement models
Diamantopoulos, A., Riefler, P., & Zeugner‐Roth, K. P. (2008) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.01.009 · Cited by 1,469
Factor Analysis
Kim, J.-O., & Mueller, C. W. (1978) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412984256 · Cited by 1,422
Causal Inferences in Nonexperimental Research
Blalock, H. M. (1964) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,276
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF SETS OF CONGENERIC TESTS*
Jöreskog, K. G. (1969) · ETS Research Bulletin Series · doi:10.1002/j.2333-8504.1969.tb00777.x · Cited by 1,207
Toward A Taxonomy of Multidimensional Constructs
Law, K. S., Wong, C., & Mobley, W. M. (1998) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.1998.1255636 · Cited by 1,136
Multidimensional constructs in organizational behavior research: an integrative analytical framework
Edwards, J. R. (2001) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/109442810142004 · Cited by 1,128
Self-citation
The Logic of Modern Physics
Bridgman, P. W. (1927) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 1,075
Complementary and Supplementary Fit: A Theoretical and Empirical Integration.
Cable, D. M., & Edwards, J. R. (2004) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.5.822 · Cited by 949
Self-citation
JOB SATISFACTION: ARE ALL THE PARTS THERE?
Scarpello, V., & Campbell, J. P. (1983) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1983.tb02236.x · Cited by 862
The use of causal indicators in covariance structure models: Some practical issues.
MacCallum, R. C., & Browne, M. W. (1993) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.114.3.533 · Cited by 805
Survey Questions: Handcrafting the Standardized Questionnaire
Quarm, D., Converse, J. M., & Presser, S. (1988) · Teaching Sociology · doi:10.2307/1317544 · Cited by 767
Work and Family Stress and Well-Being: An Examination of Person-Environment Fit in the Work and Family Domains
Edwards, J. R., & Rothbard, N. P. (1999) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.1998.2813 · Cited by 626
Self-citation
Survey Questions
Converse, J. M., & Presser, S. (1986) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412986045 · Cited by 608
Recommendations for APA test standards regarding construct, trait, or discriminant validity.
Campbell, D. T. (1960) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0048255 · Cited by 560
On the Meaning of within-Factor Correlated Measurement Errors
Gerbing, D. W., & Anderson, J. C. (1984) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/208993 · Cited by 526 · cited 1×
“…the uniqueness terms are specified as independent of one another, although covariances are sometimes introduced to represent minor factors shared by subsets of measures (Gerbing & Anderson, 1984) or methodological factors common across measures (Cole, Ciesla, & Steiger, 2007; Marsh, 1989).”
Background
Confirmatory Factor Analyses of Multitrait-Multimethod Data: Many Problems and a Few Solutions
Marsh, H. W. (1989) · Applied Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/014662168901300402 · Cited by 505
Book Reviews
Wethington, E. (2000) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2667119 · Cited by 485
Measuring the Mind
Borsboom, D. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511490026 · Cited by 481
The insidious effects of failing to include design-driven correlated residuals in latent-variable covariance structure analysis.
Cole, D. A., Ciesla, J. A., & Steiger, J. H. (2007) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.12.4.381 · Cited by 451
Psychological Reports
(2015) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.117.3.i-xi · Cited by 449
Person-Environment Fit Theory: Conceptual Foundations, Empirical and Directions Future Research
Edwards, J. R., Caplan, R. D., & Harrison, R. V. (1998) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198522799.003.0003 · Cited by 442
Self-citation
Reconsidering formative measurement.
Howell, R. D., Breivik, E., & Wilcox, J. B. (2007) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.12.2.205 · Cited by 434
Person-environment fit theory: Conceptual foundations, empirical evidence, and directions for future research.
Edwards, J. R., Caplan, R. C., & Harrison, V. (1998) · Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) · Cited by 422
Self-citation
Confirmatory Factor Analysis: A Preface to LISREL
Long, J. S. (1983) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 402
Great Minds in Management: The Process of Theory Development
(2006) · Society and Business Review · doi:10.1108/17465680610706346 · Cited by 397
Multiple indicators: Internal consistency or no necessary relationship?
Bollen, K. A. (1984) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/bf00227593 · Cited by 375
A tetrad test for causal indicators.
Bollen, K. A., & Ting, K. (2000) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.5.1.3 · Cited by 369
The Treatment of Unobservable Variables in Path Analysis
Hauser, R. M., & Goldberger, A. S. (1971) · Sociological Methodology · doi:10.2307/270819 · Cited by 347
The error term in formative measurement models: interpretation and modeling implications
Diamantopoulos, A. (2006) · Journal of Modelling in Management · doi:10.1108/17465660610667775 · Cited by 343
Methodology in Social Research.
Leik, R. K., Blalock, H. M., & Blalock, A. B. (1969) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2092313 · Cited by 329
Employing Nominal Variables, Induced Variables, and Block Variables in Path Analyses
Heise, D. R. (1972) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/004912417200100201 · Cited by 322
Problems in the Measurement of Latent Variables in Structural Equations Causal Models
Cohen, P. R., Cohen, J., Teresi, J. A., Marchi, M., & Vélez, C. N. (1990) · Applied Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/014662169001400207 · Cited by 311
Factor analysis, causal indicators and quality of life
Fayers, P. M., & Hand, D. J. (1997) · Quality of Life Research · doi:10.1023/a:1026490117121 · Cited by 287
Validity, Invalidity, and Reliability
Heise, D. R., & Bohrnstedt, G. W. (1970) · Sociological Methodology · doi:10.2307/270785 · Cited by 286
Interpretational Confounding of Unobserved Variables in Structural Equation Models
Burt, R. S. (1976) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/004912417600500101 · Cited by 280
Multidimensional constructs in structural equation analysis: An illustration using the job perception and job satisfaction constructs
Law, K. S. (1999) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1016/s0149-2063(99)80007-5 · Cited by 263
Questions about formative measurement
Wilcox, J. B., Howell, R. D., & Breivik, E. (2008) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.01.010 · Cited by 246
The Role of Formative Measurement Models in Strategic Management Research: Review, Critique, and Implications for Future Research
Podsakoff, N. P., Shen, W., & Podsakoff, P. M. (2006) · Research methodology in strategy and management · doi:10.1016/s1479-8387(06)03008-6 · Cited by 240
Latent Variable Theory
Borsboom, D. (2008) · Measurement Interdisciplinary Research and Perspectives · doi:10.1080/15366360802035497 · Cited by 232
A cautionary note on measurement error corrections in structural equation models.
DeShon, R. P. (1998) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.3.4.412 · Cited by 226
Theory, Deduction, and Rules of Correspondence
Costner, H. L. (1969) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/224770 · Cited by 217
Great Minds in Management
(2005) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199276813.001.0001 · Cited by 207
Causal Indicator Models: Identification, Estimation, and Testing
Bollen, K. A., & Davis, W. R. (2009) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705510903008253 · Cited by 196
On the meaning of formative measurement and how it differs from reflective measurement: Comment on Howell, Breivik, and Wilcox (2007).
Bagozzi, R. P. (2007) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.12.2.229 · Cited by 195
Interpretational confounding is due to misspecification, not to type of indicator: Comment on Howell, Breivik, and Wilcox (2007).
Bollen, K. A. (2007) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.12.2.219 · Cited by 164
Constructs and their vicissitudes in educational and psychological measurement.
Messick, S. (1981) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.89.3.575 · Cited by 137
Organizational Behavior: The State of the Science (2nd ed.)
(2005) · Personnel Review · doi:10.1108/00483480510612558 · Cited by 121
Proportional structural effects of formative indicators
Franke, G. R., Preacher, K. J., & Rigdon, E. E. (2008) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.01.011 · Cited by 95
Is formative measurement really measurement? Reply to Bollen (2007) and Bagozzi (2007).
Howell, R. D., Breivik, E., & Wilcox, J. B. (2007) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.12.2.238 · Cited by 94
Principal Components Analysis
Härdle, W. K., & Simar, L. (2003) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-05802-2_9 · Cited by 91
Construct validation in organizational behavior research.
Edwards, J. R. (2003) · Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) · Cited by 73
Self-citation
The FC1 Rule of Identification for Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Davis, W. R. (1993) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124193021004001 · Cited by 64
Model building and parameter estimation as means for intelligent measurement
van den Bos, A., & Eykhoff, P. (1988) · Measurement · doi:10.1016/0263-2241(88)90035-8 · Cited by 61
Correcting for Measurement Error Attenuation in Structural Equation Models: Some Important Reminders
Bedeian, A. G., Day, D. V., & Kelloway, E. K. (1997) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/0013164497057005004 · Cited by 59
Overall Job Satisfaction: Is It a Linear Function of Facet Satisfaction?
Ferratt, T. W. (1981) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/001872678103400603 · Cited by 56
A Necessary and Sufficient Condition for Identification of Confirmatory Factor Analysis Models of Factor Complexity One
Reilly, T. M. (1995) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124195023004002 · Cited by 29

Research works printed but not linked: 9

Borsboom, D., 2008, Measurement, 6, 25
DeVellis, R.F., 1991, Scale development: Theories and applications
Fayers, P.M., 1997, Quality of Life Research, 6, 139
10.1177/002224378201900406 · DOI
Law, K.S., 1999, Journal of Management, 25, 143
Lord, F.M., 1968, Statistical theories of mental test scores
Nunnally, J.C., 1978, Psychometric theory
Nunnally, J.C., 1994, Psychometric theory
10.2307/258554 · DOI

Sorted by citations

Reporting reliability, convergent and discriminant validity with structural equation modeling: A review and best-practice recommendations
Cheung, G. W., Cooper-Thomas, H. D., Lau, R. S., & Wang, L. C. (2024) · Asia Pacific Journal of Management · doi:10.1007/s10490-023-09871-y · Cited by 2,262
El análisis factorial exploratorio de los ítems: una guía práctica, revisada y actualizada
Lloret-Segura, S., Traver, A. F., Hernández, A., & Tomás-Marco, I. (2014) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.30.3.199361 · Cited by 2,164
The Influence of Firm Size on the ESG Score: Corporate Sustainability Ratings Under Review
Drempetic, S., Klein, C., & Zwergel, B. (2019) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-019-04164-1 · Cited by 1,802
Entrepreneurial Orientation Theory and Research: Reflections on a Needed Construct
Covin, J. G., & Lumpkin, G. T. (2011) · Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6520.2011.00482.x · Cited by 1,136
Measuring entrepreneurial passion: Conceptual foundations and scale validation
Cardon, M. S., Grégoire, D. A., Stevens, C. E., & Patel, P. C. (2012) · Journal of Business Venturing · doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.03.003 · Cited by 881

See all 495

Authors: Edwards, J. R.
Affiliations: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
Corresponding author: Edwards, Jeffrey R.
ORCID: Edwards, Jeffrey R.
Venue: Organizational Research Methods
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2010-08-11
Volume: 14
Issue: 2
Pages: 370-388
ISSN: 1094-4281 (ISSN-L)
1552-7425
DOI: 10.1177/1094428110378369
OpenAlex: W2107306814
Cited by: 495
References: 97
Citations by year: 2026: 25 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 34 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 50 · 2012: 22
FWCI: 35.75
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Organizational Research Methods (publishedVersion)
Lancaster EPrints (Lancaster University) (submittedVersion)
Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Business Strategies and Management Research
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Accounting › Accounting and Organizational Management
Keywords: formative measurement, reflective measurement, construct measurement, causality, construct validity, measurement error, identification, internal consistency, dimensionality, structural equation modeling, management research

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

The Fallacy of Formative Measurement

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks