Structural equations modeling: Fit Indices, sample size, and advanced topics
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This article is the second of two parts intended to serve as a primer for structural equations models for the behavioral researcher. The first article introduced the basics: the measurement model, the structural model, and the combined, full structural equations model. In this second article, advanced issues are addressed, including fit indices and sample size, moderators, longitudinal data, mediation, and so forth.
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Study 3 CFA results suggested excellent model fit: χ2(32)=97.994, p=0.000; χ2/df=3.06; GFI=.968; CFI=.984; RMSEA=.061; SRMR=.0278.
“The results in Figure 1 suggested excellent model fit (Iacobucci 2010: p. 91): χ 2 (32) = 97.994(p=0.000); and χ 2 /df = 3.06.Further, GFI = .968;CFI = .984;RMSEA = .061;and SRMR = .0278;thus corroborating the excellent model fit to the data”
From Consumer Brand Engagement in Social Media: Conceptualization, Scale Development and Validation (2014) · cites this paper as Iacobucci 2010
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Specification, evaluation, and interpretation of structural equation models
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“Respondents may come from the same region, and the samples may not be big enough for both data analysis and conclusion generalization (Iacobucci, 2010).”
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“Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index (AGFI) ≥0.90 0.999 0.951 0.931 Relative Fit Index (RFI) ≥0.90 0.998 0.97 0.875 Result Interpretation and Discussion All of the cause-effect relations for three kinds of advertisement sources are depicted in Table 2 with their loading values.”
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“As there are a variety of model goodness-of-fit indices in structural equation modeling and each serves a slightly different objective and provides complementary information (Iacobucci, 2010), this study followed the convention in structural equation modeling to report multiple measures of model fit when assessing the…”
BackgroundExploring the Effect of Distinct Family Firm Reputation on Consumers' Preferences
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“The chi-square statistic is not an adequate test of model fit given large sample sizes (n > 500), such as our pooled sample, and small sample sizes (n < 100), such as some of the cultural cluster samples in our study (Iacobucci, 2010).”
ResultBehavioral antecedents of coopetition: A synthesis and measurement scale
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“Alexander Pope,“Essay on Man” (1732) Dawn Iacobuci provides two primers that should prove useful for researchers new to structural equation modeling (Iacobucci, 2009, 2010).”
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“The comparative fit index (CFI), standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) were used to determine goodness of fit with a cut-off value of >0.95, 0.09, and 0.08, respectively (Iacobucci, 2010).”
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MethodAdolescent Depression and Negative Life Events, the Mediating Role of Cognitive Emotion Regulation
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“For this type of statistical method, measures with at least three items are desirable (Iacobucci, 2010).”
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“The χ 2 statistic for exact model fit can be overly sensitive and biased by a number of model characteristics (Kline, 2011), and thus I used the revised criteria of χ 2 /df < 3 (Iacobucci, 2010).”
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“A χ2/df ratio < 3 was considered as acceptable (Iacobucci, 2010).”
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“The structural equation model (SEM) was used for the analysis of the results, since it allows testing all the relationships between the observed and latent variables simultaneously, by combining multiple regression with factor analysis and provides general adjustment statistics (Iacobucci, 2010).”
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“Therefore, the model fit was assessed by determining whether the observed χ2 value was less than three times the model degrees of freedom (Schermelleh-Engel et al., 2003; Iacobucci, 2010).”
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“95 are considered good fits (Marsh et al. 2004; Iacobucci 2010).”
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Emrich, O., Paul, M., & Rudolph, T. (2015) · Journal of Retailing · doi:10.1016/j.jretai.2014.12.003 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Carfora, V., Cavallo, C., Catellani, P., Del Giudice, T., & Cicia, G. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13061904 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
“Specifically, a full model includes both a measurement model, which relates the variables to the constructs, and a structural model, which relates the constructs to other constructs [83].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialFallatah, F., Laschinger, H. K. S., & Read, E. A. (2016) · Nursing Outlook · doi:10.1016/j.outlook.2016.11.020 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Todaro, N., Testa, F., Daddi, T., & Iraldo, F. (2020) · Business Strategy and the Environment · doi:10.1002/bse.2681 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Jeno, L. M., Adachi, P. J. C., Grytnes, J., Vandvik, V., & Deci, E. L. (2018) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12657 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
“For example, large sample sizes in SEM models are important when the expected effects are vague, and measures included are unreliable, whereas smaller samples of 50–100 participants may suffice for models with stronger effects and reliable measures, such as those in the current study (Iacobucci, 2010).”
BackgroundDevelopment and initial psychometric properties of a panic buying scale during COVID-19 pandemic
Lins, S., & Aquino, S. (2020) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04746 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
“Values up to 3 of relative chisquare indicator are acceptable (Iacobucci, 2010).”
Anxiety, crowding, and time pressure in public self-service technology acceptance
Gelbrich, K., & Sattler, B. (2014) · Journal of Services Marketing · doi:10.1108/jsm-02-2012-0051 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
“Moderating effects were tested using multi-group analyses and x difference tests within a nested model approach (Iacobucci, 2010; Muthén and Muthén, 2011).”
MethodPersonal norms in a globalized world: Norm-activation processes and reduced clothing consumption
Joanes, T. (2018) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.191 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
“…model was overall adequate with χ2(1910, N = 4123) = 6749.57, p 0.001, CMIN/DF = 3.53, NFI = .97, CFI = .98, TLI = 0.98, RMSEA = .02 (90% confidence interval = [.02, .02], SRMR = .02, suggesting the proposed factor structure is one possible representation of the given data (Iacobucci, 2010).”
MethodInfluentialExamining the key dimensions of customer experience quality in the hotel industry
Alnawas, I. A., & Hemsley‐Brown, J. (2019) · Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management · doi:10.1080/19368623.2019.1568339 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
“The use of reflective-measurement models or formative-measurement models has been the subject of much debate between researchers (see Edwards, 2011; Hardin, Chang, Fuller, & Torkzadeh, 2011; Iacobucci, 2010).”
MethodThe Struggle of Giving Up Personal Goals
Brandstätter, V., Herrmann, M., & Schüler, J. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167213500151 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Husnaini, S. J., & Chen, S. (2019) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.15.010119 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Negative News and Investor Trust: The Role of $Firm and #CEO Twitter Use
ELLIOTT, W. B., Grant, S. M., & Hodge, F. D. (2018) · Journal of Accounting Research · doi:10.1111/1475-679x.12217 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Shiferaw, K., & Mehari, E. A. (2019) · Informatics in Medicine Unlocked · doi:10.1016/j.imu.2019.100182 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Jussupow, E., Spohrer, K., & Heinzl, A. (2022) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/28750 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
“” We extended existing measures for threats toward professional recognition and professional capabilities following the procedure of MacKenzie et al [37], as outlined in Multimedia Appendix 2 [9,28,29,37-46].”
MethodAssessing the intentions to use internet banking
Namahoot, K. S., & Laohavichien, T. (2018) · International Journal of Bank Marketing · doi:10.1108/ijbm-11-2016-0159 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Nguyễn, L., Gallery, G., & Newton, C. (2019) · Accounting and Finance · doi:10.1111/acfi.12295 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Mostafa, A., & Gould-Williams, J. (2014) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2013.826917 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“MLE is a flexible approach to parameter estimation and has proven to be quite robust against violations of the multivariate normality assumption (Iacobucci 2009; Hair, Black, Babin and Anderson 2010).”
BackgroundOstmeier, E., & Strobel, M. (2021) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.09.020 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Conducting Mediation Analysis in Marketing Research
Demming, C. L., Jahn, S., & Boztuğ, Y. (2017) · doi:10.15358/0344-1369-2017-3-76 · Cited by 125
“A third advantage of SEM is its provision of model fit indices (Hu and Bentler 1998; Iacobucci 2010).”
Background
- Authors
- Iacobucci, D.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Iacobucci, Dawn
- ORCID
- Iacobucci, Dawn
- Venue
- Journal of Consumer Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2009-10-03
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 90-98
- ISSN
- 1057-7408 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7663
- OpenAlex
- W2038318317
- Cited by
- 2,263
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 111 · 2025: 193 · 2024: 193 · 2023: 186 · 2022: 210 · 2021: 208 · 2020: 158 · 2019: 193 · 2018: 169 · 2017: 129 · 2016: 128 · 2015: 123 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 86 · 2012: 53
- FWCI
- 34.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- papers.ssrn.com
- Locations
- Journal of Consumer Psychology (publishedVersion)
- SSRN Electronic Journal (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Applications
- Keywords
- structural equation modeling, model fit indices, sample size, moderators, longitudinal data, mediation, measurement model, structural model
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