The theoretical status of latent variables.

Borsboom, Denny; Mellenbergh, Gideon J.; van Heerden, Jaap

doi:10.1037/0033-295x.110.2.203

Cited by 1,566Psychometric Methodologies and TestingPsychological Testing and AssessmentEducational Assessment and Pedagogy

The theoretical status of latent variables.

Borsboom, Denny, Mellenbergh, Gideon J., van Heerden, Jaap·2003·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.110.2.203

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

This article examines the theoretical status of latent variables as used in modern test theory models. First, it is argued that a consistent interpretation of such models requires a realist ontology for latent variables. Second, the relation between latent variables and their indicators is discussed. It is maintained that this relation can be interpreted as a causal one but that in measurement models for interindividual differences the relation does not apply to the level of the individual person. To substantiate intraindividual causal conclusions, one must explicitly represent individual level processes in the measurement model. Several research strategies that may be useful in this respect are discussed, and a typology of constructs is proposed on the basis of this analysis. The need to link individual processes to latent variable models for interindividual differences is emphasized.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0033-295x.110.2.203

Cites

137 of 137 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

The measurements and clusters of tests in standard factor-analytic construct definition are selected on intuitive or a priori grounds, not on the basis of predictive validity in terms of real-world outcomes.
“The measurements and clusters of tests are selected on intuitive grounds or a priori grounds, and not on the basis of any predictive validity in terms of real-world outcomes (for example, success in college, performance on the job, earnings).”
From Personality Psychology and Economics (2011) · cites this paper as Borsboom, Mellenbergh and van Heerden [2003]
Boorsboom and colleagues have argued that between-person theories do not imply, test, or support causal accounts valid at the individual level.
“Boorsboom and colleagues have argued that between-person theories do not imply, test, or support causal accounts valid at the individual level [87].”
From Health behavior models in the age of mobile interventions: are our theories up to the task? (2011) · cites this paper as [87]

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,841 · see citing works
Alternative Ways of Assessing Model Fit
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124192021002005 · Cited by 27,200 · see citing works
Generalized Linear Models
(2005) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-387-27255-0_9 · Cited by 20,333 · see citing works
Generalized Linear Models
McCullagh, P., & Nelder, J. A. (1989) · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-3242-6 · Cited by 16,836 · see citing works
Causality: Models, Reasoning, and Inference
Pearl, J. (2009) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511803161 · Cited by 11,653 · see citing works
Statistical Methods for Research Workers
Fisher, R. A. (1945) · American Journal of Clinical Pathology · doi:10.1093/ajcp/15.11.552b · Cited by 10,883 · see citing works
Reviews: Lord, Frederic M., and Novick, Melvin R. (with contributions by Allan Birnbaum). Statistical Theories of Mental Test Scores. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1968. xii + 568 pp. $14.95.
Rozeboom, W. W., Lord, F. M., Novick, M. R., & Birnbaum, A. (1969) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.2307/1162101 · Cited by 8,012 · see citing works
Probabilistic Models for Some Intelligence and Attainment Tests
Psychology, M. (1961) · Information and Control · doi:10.1016/s0019-9958(61)80061-2 · Cited by 6,936 · see citing works
LISREL 7 : user's reference guide
Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (1989) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 6,783 · see citing works
"General Intelligence," Objectively Determined and Measured
Spearman, C. (1904) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1412107 · Cited by 6,207 · see citing works
Statistics and Causal Inference
Holland, P. W. (1986) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1986.10478354 · Cited by 5,293 · see citing works
Applications of Item Response Theory To Practical Testing Problems
Lord, F. M. (2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203056615 · Cited by 5,009 · see citing works
CAUSALITY: MODELS, REASONING AND INFERENCE
Hitchcock, C., & Pearl, J. (2001) · The Philosophical Review · doi:10.2307/3182612 · Cited by 4,824 · see citing works
Representing and Intervening: Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science
Hacking, I. (1983) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511814563 · Cited by 4,814 · see citing works
The Scientific Image
Fraassen, B. C. V. (1980) · doi:10.1093/0198244274.001.0001 · Cited by 4,682 · see citing works
Handbook of Personality : Theory and Research
Pervin, L. A. (1992) · Cited by 4,543 · see citing works
Measurement Invariance, Factor Analysis and Factorial Invariance
Meredith, W. (1993) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02294825 · Cited by 4,536 · see citing works
Minnesota studies in the philosophy of science
Feigl, H., & Scriven, M. (1956) · Cited by 4,419 · see citing works
Personality and Assessment
Madison, P., & Mischel, W. (1968) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421067 · Cited by 4,395 · see citing works
Test Theory: A Unified Treatment
Zwick, R., & McDonald, R. P. (2000) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2669496 · Cited by 3,637 · see citing works
Conventional wisdom on measurement: A structural equation perspective.
Bollen, K., & Lennox, R. (1991) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.110.2.305 · Cited by 3,618 · see citing works
Handbook of personality theory and research
Wilson, G. (1991) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(91)90043-b · Cited by 3,552 · see citing works
Conjectures and Refutations
Vannieuwenhoven, N. (2020) · McGill-Queen's University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctvw1d7dg.9 · Cited by 3,392 · see citing works
The Scientific Image.
Demopoulos, W., & van Fraassen, B. C. (1982) · The Philosophical Review · doi:10.2307/2184804 · Cited by 3,317 · see citing works
Time Series Analysis by State Space Methods: Second Edition
Durbin, J., & Koopman, S. J. (2012) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199641178.001.0001 · Cited by 3,301 · see citing works
Toward a cognitive social learning reconceptualization of personality
Mischel, W. (1973) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0035002 · Cited by 3,181 · see citing works
Causality: models, reasoning, and inference
(2000) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.38-1494a · Cited by 2,969 · see citing works
CONJECTURES AND REFUTATIONS
Alexander, P. F. (1963) · Philosophical Books · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0149.1963.tb00798.x · Cited by 2,864 · see citing works
Educational measurement, 3rd ed.
Linn, R. L. (1989) · Cited by 2,858 · see citing works
Beyond IQ: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence
Clarke, A. M., & Sternberg, R. J. (1986) · British Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.2307/3121332 · Cited by 2,856 · see citing works
Generalized Linear Models
Schuenemeyer, J. H., McCullagh, P. J., & Nelder, J. A. (1992) · Technometrics · doi:10.2307/1269238 · Cited by 2,702 · see citing works
ESTIMATION OF LATENT ABILITY USING A RESPONSE PATTERN OF GRADED SCORES1
Samejima, F. (1968) · ETS Research Bulletin Series · doi:10.1002/j.2333-8504.1968.tb00153.x · Cited by 2,605 · see citing works
Multiple Factor Analysis
(2007) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412952644.n300 · Cited by 2,589 · see citing works
The two disciplines of scientific psychology.
Cronbach, L. J. (1957) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0043943 · Cited by 2,545 · see citing works
Latent Structure Analysis.
Mayer, T. F., Lazarsfeld, P. F., & Henry, N. W. (1969) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2092222 · Cited by 2,412 · see citing works
Educational measurement.
Douglas, O. B., & Holland, B. F. (2015) · MacMillan Co eBooks · doi:10.1037/14910-020 · Cited by 2,283 · see citing works
Estimation of Latent Ability Using a Response Pattern of Graded Scores
Samejima, F. (1969) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf03372160 · Cited by 2,194 · see citing works
How the Laws of Physics Lie
Cartwright, N. D. (1983) · Durham Research Online (Durham University) · doi:10.1093/0198247044.001.0001 · Cited by 2,091 · see citing works
Factor Analysis as a Statistical Method.
Browne, M. W., Lawley, D., & Maxwell, A. E. (1964) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series D (The Statistician) · doi:10.2307/2986693 · Cited by 2,067 · see citing works
Untitled work
(1968) · Addison-Wesley eBooks · Cited by 2,001 · see citing works
Foundations of Measurement
(1990) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2009-0-21635-7 · Cited by 1,966 · see citing works
Personality and Individual Differences
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, M. W. (1985) · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-2413-3 · Cited by 1,893 · see citing works
Personality and Individual Differences: A Natural Science Approach
Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, M. W. (1985) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,848 · see citing works
On the nature and direction of relationships between constructs and measures.
Edwards, J. R., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2000) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.5.2.155 · Cited by 1,747 · see citing works
Exploratory latent structure analysis using both identifiable and unidentifiable models
Goodman, L. A. (1974) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/61.2.215 · Cited by 1,616 · see citing works
On the bipolarity of positive and negative affect.
Russell, J. A., & Carroll, J. M. (1999) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.1.3 · Cited by 1,481 · see citing works
Statistical analysis of sets of congeneric tests
Jöreskog, K. G. (1971) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02291393 · Cited by 1,481 · see citing works
Choosing a multivariate model: Noncentrality and goodness of fit.
McDonald, R. P., & Marsh, H. W. (1990) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.247 · Cited by 1,439 · see citing works
Latent Variables Analysis: Applications for Developmental Research.
Aa, von Eye, A., & Clogg, C. C. (1995) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2291370 · Cited by 1,380 · see citing works
Statistical Methods for Research Workers
Fisher, B. R. A. (1926) · Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/s0368-1742(26)80018-9 · Cited by 1,287 · see citing works
Measurement and prediction
Stouffer, S. A. (1950) · Princeton University Press eBooks · Cited by 1,244 · see citing works
Estimating Item Parameters and Latent Ability when Responses are Scored in Two or More Nominal Categories
Bock, R. D. (1972) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02291411 · Cited by 1,239 · see citing works
A System of Logic
Mill, J. S. (1843) · Cited by 1,235 · see citing works
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF SETS OF CONGENERIC TESTS*
Jöreskog, K. G. (1969) · ETS Research Bulletin Series · doi:10.1002/j.2333-8504.1969.tb00777.x · Cited by 1,205 · see citing works
Bayesian Statistics: An Introduction
Ziegel, E. R., & Lee, P. M. (1998) · Technometrics · doi:10.2307/1270551 · Cited by 1,191 · see citing works
The Structure of Scientific Theories.
Day, J. P., & Suppe, F. (1975) · The Philosophical Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2218992 · Cited by 1,154 · see citing works
Latent Variables in Psychology and the Social Sciences
Bollen, K. A. (2002) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135239 · Cited by 1,127 · see citing works
A Theory and Procedure of Scale Analysis: With Applications in Political Research
Mokken, R. J. (1971) · doi:10.1515/9783110813203 · Cited by 1,120 · see citing works
Personality and assessment
Beech, H. R. (1969) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(69)90024-2 · Cited by 1,072 · see citing works
Latent Variable Models and Factor Analysis
Tatsuoka, K. K., & Bartholomew, D. J. (1989) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.2307/1164730 · Cited by 1,017 · see citing works
The Logic of Modern Physics
Bridgman, P. W. (1927) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 966 · see citing works
Latent Growth Curves within Developmental Structural Equation Models
McArdle, J. J., & EPSTEIN, D. A. (1987) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130295 · Cited by 935 · see citing works
Cross-Validation Of Covariance Structures
Cudeck, R. A., & Browne, M. W. (1983) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr1802_2 · Cited by 857 · see citing works
The Direction of Time
Reichenbach, M., & Morrison, P. (1956) · Physics Today · doi:10.1063/1.3059791 · Cited by 839 · see citing works
Foundations of Measurement:
Fishburn, P. C., Suppes, P., Krantz, D. H., Luce, R. D., Tversky, A., Luce, R. D., & Suppes, P. (1991) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2290423 · Cited by 796 · see citing works
Latent Structure Analysis
Henry, N. W. (2014) · Wiley StatsRef: Statistics Reference Online · doi:10.1002/9781118445112.stat02466 · Cited by 746 · see citing works
RECONCILING PROCESSING DYNAMICS AND PERSONALITY DISPOSITIONS
Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. (1998) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.229 · Cited by 743 · see citing works
On the Relationship between iTem Response Theory and Factor Analysis of Discretized Variables
Takane, Y., & de Leeuw, J. (1987) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02294363 · Cited by 699 · see citing works
A GENERAL METHOD FOR STUDYING DIFFERENCES IN FACTOR MEANS AND FACTOR STRUCTURE BETWEEN GROUPS
Sörbom, D. (1974) · British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8317.1974.tb00543.x · Cited by 679 · see citing works
Measurement in Psychology
Michell, J. (1999) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511490040 · Cited by 618 · see citing works
Logic of Statistical Inference
Hacking, I., & Romeijn, J. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316534960 · Cited by 613 · see citing works
Logic of Statistical Inference.
Dempster, A. P., & Hacking, I. (1966) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2283215 · Cited by 612 · see citing works
New methods for the analysis of change
Collins, L. M., & Sayer, A. (2001) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10409-000 · Cited by 578 · see citing works
Factor Analysis as a Statistical Method
Lawley, D. N., & Maxwell, A. E. (1962) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series D (The Statistician) · doi:10.2307/2986915 · Cited by 550 · see citing works
A theory of test scores.
Lord, F. M. (1952) · Cited by 494 · see citing works
A Dynamic Factor Model for the Analysis of Multivariate Time Series
Molenaar, P. C. M. (1985) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02294246 · Cited by 480 · see citing works
Valence focus and arousal focus: Individual differences in the structure of affective experience.
Barrett, L. F. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.1.153 · Cited by 463 · see citing works
A Critical Analysis of Current Trait Theory
Pervin, L. A. (1994) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0502_1 · Cited by 460 · see citing works
A Taxonomy of Item Response Models
Thissen, D., & Steinberg, L. (1986) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02295596 · Cited by 422 · see citing works
The Affect System
Cacioppo, J. T., & Berntson, G. G. (1999) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00031 · Cited by 421 · see citing works
Latent Variable Models and Factor Analysis.
Gibbons, R. D., & Bartholomew, D. J. (1988) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2290173 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
Studies in social psychology in World War II
Division, E. (1949) · Princeton University Press eBooks · Cited by 382 · see citing works
Graphs, Causality, and Structural Equation Models
PEARL, J. (1998) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/0049124198027002004 · Cited by 341 · see citing works
The Ontological Status of Theoretical Entities
Maxwell, G. (2014) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315051963-5 · Cited by 328 · see citing works
Realism and truth
Devitt, M. (1984) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 313 · see citing works
The Mind's Arrows
Glymour, C. (2001) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/4638.001.0001 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Scientific explanation, space, and time
Maxwell, G., & Feigl, H. (1962) · University of Minnesota Press eBooks · Cited by 273 · see citing works
The Structure of Scientific Theories
Michalos, A. C. (1975) · Teaching Philosophy · doi:10.5840/teachphil19751270 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Generalized Latent Trait Models
Moustaki, I., & Knott, M. J. (2000) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02296153 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
A Response Model for Multiple Choice Items
Thissen, D., & Steinberg, L. (1984) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02302588 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Multiple Factor Analysis.
Tukey, J. W., & Thurstone, L. L. (1947) · American Mathematical Monthly · doi:10.2307/2304512 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
A Companion to the Philosophy of Science
(2001) · Blackwell Publishing Ltd eBooks · doi:10.1111/b.9780631230205.2001.x · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Generalized linear item response theory.
Mellenbergh, G. J. (1994) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.115.2.300 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Big Five as States: How Useful Is the Five-Factor Model to Describe Intraindividual Variations over Time?
Borkenau, P., & Ostendorf, F. (1998) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1006/jrpe.1997.2206 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Linear Versus Models in Item Response Theory
McDonald, R. P. (1982) · Applied Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/014662168200600402 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
On the Sampling Theory Roundations of Item Response Theory Models
Holland, P. W. (1990) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02294609 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
The Relationship Between the Structure of Interindividual and Intraindividual Variability: A Theoretical and Empirical Vindication of Developmental Systems Theory
Molenaar, P. C. M., Huizenga, H. M., & Nesselroade, J. R. (2003) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-0357-6_15 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Joint Statistical Papers
Neyman, J., & Pearson, E. S. (1967) · University of California Press eBooks · doi:10.1525/9780520339897 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Studies of a Class of Covariance Structure Models
Wiley, D. E., Schmidt, W. H., & Bramble, W. J. (1973) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1973.10482426 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Statistical Methods for Educational and Psychological Research.
Hays, W. L., Novick, M. R., & Jackson, P. H. (1976) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2286882 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
When are probabilistic explanations possible?
Suppes, P., & Zanotti, M. (1981) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/bf01063886 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Saltus: A psychometric model of discontinuity in cognitive development.
Wilson, M. R. (1989) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.105.2.276 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Generalized linear item response theory.
Mellenbergh, G. J. (1994) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.300 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Self-citation
Understanding Human Development
Staudinger, U. M., & Lindenberger, U. (2003) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-0357-6 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
XXIII.—On Problems connected with Item Selection and Test Construction
Lawley, D. N. (1943) · Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Section A Mathematical and Physical Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0080454100006282 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
When are Probabilistic Explanations Possible?
Suppes, P. (1993) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-2300-8_11 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
The Philosophy of Science.
Scriven, M., & Toulmin, S. E. (1955) · The Philosophical Review · doi:10.2307/2182242 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Social-Cognitive Mechanisms and Personality Coherence: Self-Knowledge, Situational Beliefs, and Cross-Situational Coherence in Perceived Self-Efficacy
Cervone, D. (1997) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00542.x · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Five decades of item response modelling
Goldstein, H., & Wood, R. W. (1989) · British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8317.1989.tb00905.x · Cited by 115 · see citing works
The psychology of personality: An epistemological inquiry.
Lamiell, J. T. (1987) · Columbia University Press eBooks · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Exploratory Latent Structure Analysis Using Both Identifiable and Unidentifiable Models
Goodman, L. A. (1974) · Biometrika · doi:10.2307/2334349 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Several Unresolved Conceptual Problems of Mathematical Psychology
Luce, R. D. (1997) · Journal of Mathematical Psychology · doi:10.1006/jmps.1997.1150 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Bayesian Statistics: An Introduction
Cowles, M. K., & Lee, P. (1998) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2670069 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Applications of Cognitive Design Systems to Test Development
Embretson, S. E. (1994) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4757-9730-5_6 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Test Theory
Lumsden, J. (1976) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.27.020176.001343 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Trait Theory as Personality Theory: Can a Part Be as Great as the Whole?
Epstein, S. J. (1994) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0502_4 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Fitting the Rasch model—A heady tale
Wood, R. W. (1978) · British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8317.1978.tb00569.x · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Statistical Methods in Educational and Psychological Research.
Jones, L. V., Wert, J. E., Neidt, C. O., et al. (1956) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2280815 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Local Homogeneity in Latent Trait Models. A Characterization of the Homogeneous Monotone IRT Model
Ellis, J. L., & van den Wollenberg, A. L. (1993) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02294649 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
An Extension of the Rating Scale Model with an Application to the Measurement of Change
Fischer, G., & Parzer, P. (1991) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02294496 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
On the Arbitrary Nature of Latent Variables
Molenaar, P. C. M., & von Eye, A. (1994) · UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) · Cited by 50 · see citing works
X.—The Factorial Analysis of Multiple Item Tests
Lawley, D. N. (1944) · Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh Section A Mathematical and Physical Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0080454100006440 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Cognitive assessment : a multidisciplinary perspective
Reynolds, C. R. (1994) · Plenum Press eBooks · Cited by 40 · see citing works
A Companion to the philosophy of science
(2000) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.37-5599 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Graphs, Causality, and Structural Equation Models
Pearl, J. (1999) · doi:10.4135/9780857029027.d130 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Personality assessment: A conceptual survey.
Rorer, L. G. (1990) · Cited by 32 · see citing works
A Nonspatial Methodology for the Analysis of Two-Way Proximity Data Incorporating the Distance-Density Hypothesis
DeSarbo, W. S., Manrai, A. K., & Burke, R. R. (1990) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02295285 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
The Correspondence Theory of Truth.
Hamlyn, D. W., & O'Connor, D. J. (1976) · The Philosophical Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2219145 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The Correspondence Theory of Truth
Brown, J. M. (1976) · Philosophical Studies · doi:10.5840/philstudies1976259 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Platonic true scores and error in psychiatric rating scales.
Klein, D. F., & Cleary, T. A. (1967) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0024761 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Comparison of the Ergic and Self‐Sentiment Structures Found in Dynamic Traits by R‐ and P‐Techniques
Cattell, R. B., & Cross, K. P. (1952) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1952.tb01132.x · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Studies of a Class of Covariance Structure Models
Wiley, D. E., Schmidt, W. H., & Bramble, W. J. (1973) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2284069 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Longitudinal Analysis
Molenaar, P. C. M. (1999) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9780857029027.d84 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
PRIMARY CARCINOMA OF THE TRACHEA
GUTTMAN, M. R., SIMON, M. U., & NITKA, C. B. (1950) · Archives of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery · doi:10.1001/archotol.1950.00700030193005 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Research methodology in the life, behavioural and social sciences
Adèr, H. J., & Mellenbergh, G. J. (1999) · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citation
Research, Argumentation and Action in the Media Field
Lazarsfeld, P. F. (1950) · Journalism Quarterly · doi:10.1177/107769905002700302 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Untitled work
(1999)

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Network analysis: An integrative approach to the structure of psychopathology
Borsboom, D., & Cramer, A. O. J. (2013) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185608 · Cited by 4,359 · see citing works
Self-citation
How to perform and report an impactful analysis using partial least squares: guidelines for confirmatory and explanatory IS research
Benitez, J., Henseler, J., Castillo, A., & Schuberth, F. (2020) · Information & Management · doi:10.1016/j.im.2019.05.003 · Cited by 1,788 · see citing works
Comorbidity: a network perspective
Cramer, A. O. J., Waldorp, L. J., van der Maas, H. L. J., & Borsboom, D. (2010) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x09991567 · Cited by 1,575 · see citing works
Self-citation
Education and cognitive functioning across the life span
Lövdén, M., Fratiglioni, L., Glymour, M. M., Lindenberger, U., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2020) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100620920576 · Cited by 1,224 · see citing works
Can network analysis transform psychopathology?
McNally, R. J. (2016) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2016.06.006 · Cited by 1,072 · see citing works
Thinking Clearly About Correlations and Causation: Graphical Causal Models for Observational Data
Rohrer, J. M. (2018) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2515245917745629 · Cited by 1,002 · see citing works
Health behavior models in the age of mobile interventions: are our theories up to the task?
Riley, W. T., Rivera, D. E., Atienza, A. A., Nilsen, W., Allison, S. M., & Mermelstein, R. (2011) · Translational Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s13142-011-0021-7 · Cited by 978 · see citing works
Network analysis of depression and anxiety symptom relationships in a psychiatric sample
Beard, C., Millner, A. J., Forgeard, M. J. C., Fried, E. I., Hsu, K. J., Treadway, M. T., Leonard, C. V., Kertz, S. J., & Björgvinsson, T. (2016) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291716002300 · Cited by 929 · see citing works
Challenges and opportunities in examining and addressing intersectional stigma and health
Turan, J. M., Elafros, M. A., Logie, C. H., Banik, S., Turan, B., Crockett, K. B., Pescosolido, B., & Murray, S. M. (2019) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-018-1246-9 · Cited by 764 · see citing works
Deconstructing the construct: a network perspective on psychological phenomena
Schmittmann, V. D., Cramer, A. O. J., Waldorp, L. J., Epskamp, S., Kievit, R. A., & Borsboom, D. (2013) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2011.02.007 · Cited by 740 · see citing works
Self-citation
Psychometric perspectives on diagnostic systems
Borsboom, D. (2008) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20503 · Cited by 691 · see citing works
Self-citation
Single-case experimental designs: a systematic review of published research and current standards
Smith, J. D. (2012) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/a0029312 · Cited by 630 · see citing works
Mental Disorders as Causal Systems: A Network Approach to Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
McNally, R. J., Robinaugh, D. J., Wu, G. W. Y., Wang, L., Deserno, M. K., & Borsboom, D. (2015) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702614553230 · Cited by 592 · see citing works
Self-citation
The generalizability crisis
Yarkoni, T. (2022) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x20001685 · Cited by 701 · see citing works
At the Frontiers of Modeling Intensive Longitudinal Data: Dynamic Structural Equation Models for the Affective Measurements from the COGITO Study
Hamaker, E. L., Asparouhov, T., Brose, A., Schmiedek, F., & Muthén, B. (2018) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2018.1446819 · Cited by 549 · see citing works
Personality Psychology and Economics
Almlund, M., Duckworth, A. L., Heckman, J., & Kautz, T. (2011) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w16822 · Cited by 540 · see citing works
The Fallacy of Formative Measurement
Edwards, J. R. (2011) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428110378369 · Cited by 495 · see citing works
Psychometric Validation of the Revised Family Affluence Scale: a Latent Variable Approach
the FAS Development Study Group, Torsheim, T., Cavallo, F., Levin, K. A., Schnohr, C., Mazur, J., Niclasen, B., & Currie, C. (2016) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-015-9339-x · Cited by 472 · see citing works
A Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology Can Transform Mental Health Research
Conway, C. C., Forbes, M. K., Forbush, K. T., Fried, E. I., Hallquist, M. N., Kotov, R., Mullins-Sweatt, S. N., Shackman, A. J., Skodol, A. E., South, S. C., et al. (2019) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691618810696 · Cited by 426 · see citing works
Tourism destination competitiveness: From definition to explanation?
Mazanec, J. A., Wöber, K., & Zins, A. H. (2007) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/0047287507302389 · Cited by 437 · see citing works
Contextual behavioral science: Creating a science more adequate to the challenge of the human condition
Hayes, S. C., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Wilson, K. G. (2012) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2012.09.004 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
Lack of theory building and testing impedes progress in the factor and network literature
Fried, E. I. (2020) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2020.1853461 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Promoting Children's Social-Emotional Skills in Preschool Can Enhance Academic and Behavioral Functioning in Kindergarten: Findings From Head Start REDI
Nix, R. L., Bierman, K. L., Domitrovich, C. E., & Gill, S. (2013) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2013.825565 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Psychiatric diagnosis: Lessons from the DSM-IV past and cautions for the DSM-5 future
Frances, A. J., & Widiger, T. (2012) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143102 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Distinguishing Mediational Models and Analyses in Clinical Psychology: Atemporal Associations Do Not Imply Causation: Temporal and Atemporal Mediation
Winer, E. S., Cervone, D., Bryant, J., McKinney, C., Liu, R. T., & Nadorff, M. R. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22298 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
“White Box” Epidemiology and the Social Neuroscience of Health Behaviors: The Environmental Affordances Model
Mezuk, B., Abdou, C. M., Hudson, D., Kershaw, K. N., Rafferty, J. A., Lee, H., & Jackson, J. S. (2013) · Society and Mental Health · doi:10.1177/2156869313480892 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Network analysis of persistent complex bereavement disorder in conjugally bereaved adults.
Robinaugh, D. J., LeBlanc, N. J., Vuletich, H. A., & McNally, R. J. (2014) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000002 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Foundations of idiographic methods in psychology and applications for psychotherapy
Piccirillo, M. L., & Rodebaugh, T. L. (2019) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2019.01.002 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Separation of performance-approach and performance-avoidance achievement goals: A broader analysis.
Murayama, K., Elliot, A. J., & Yamagata, S. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021948 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
A conceptual and psychometric framework for distinguishing categories and dimensions
De Boeck, P., Wilson, M., & Acton, G. S. (2005) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.112.1.129 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Measuring executive function in early childhood: A case for formative measurement.
Willoughby, M. T., The Family Life Project Investigators, & Blair, C. B. (2016) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000152 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Substance abuse and emotion.
(2010) · doi:10.1037/12067-000 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Risk factors for elementary school drinking: Pubertal status, personality, and alcohol expectancies concurrently predict fifth grade alcohol consumption.
Gunn, R. L., & Smith, G. T. (2010) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/a0020334 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
A Clinician’s Primer for Idiographic Research: Considerations and Recommendations
Piccirillo, M. L., Beck, E. D., & Rodebaugh, T. L. (2019) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2019.02.002 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
The Usability Construct: A Dead End?
Tractinsky, N. (2018) · Human–Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/07370024.2017.1298038 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Expertise in emotion: A scoping review and unifying framework for individual differences in the mental representation of emotional experience
Hoemann, K., Nielson, C., Yuen, A., Gurera, J. W., Quigley, K. S., & Barrett, L. F. (2021) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000327 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
The Need for Time-Intensive Information in Healthful Eating and Physical Activity Research: A Timely Topic
Dunton, G. F., & Atienza, A. A. (2009) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/j.jada.2008.10.019 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
It depends how you look at it: On the relationship between neuroticism and conscientiousness at the within- and the between-person levels of analysis
Beckmann, N., Wood, R. E., & Minbashian, A. (2010) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.07.004 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Within-person variations in self-focused attention and negative affect in depression and anxiety: A diary study
Mor, N., Doane, L. D., Adam, E. K., Mineka, S., Zinbarg, R. E., Griffith, J. W., Craske, M. G., Waters, A., & Nazarian, M. (2010) · Cognition and Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930802499715 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Personalized models of physical activity responses to text message micro-interventions: A proof-of-concept application of control systems engineering methods
Conroy, D. E., Hojjatinia, S., Lagoa, C. M., Yang, C.-H., Lanza, S. T., & Smyth, J. M. (2019) · Psychology of Sport and Exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2018.06.011 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Explaining the relationship between religiousness and substance use: Self-control matters.
DeWall, C. N., Pond, R. S., Carter, E. C., McCullough, M. E., Lambert, N. M., Fincham, F. D., & Nezlek, J. B. (2014) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036853 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Measuring those who have their minds set: An item-level meta-analysis of the implicit theories of intelligence scale in education
Scherer, R., & Campos, D. G. (2022) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100479 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
A cross-classified path analysis of the self-determination theory model on the situational, individual and classroom levels in college education
Yu, S., & Levesque-Bristol, C. (2020) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101857 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Depression and pain impair daily functioning and quality of life in patients with major depressive disorder
Lin, C.-H., Yen, Y.-C., Chen, M.-C., & Chen, C.-C. (2014) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.03.039 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
The differences between suicide ideators and suicide attempters: simple, complicated, or complex
Huang, X., Ribeiro, J. D., & Franklin, J. C. (2020) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000498 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The relation of representational competence and conceptual knowledge in female and male undergraduates
Edelsbrunner, P. A., Malone, S., Hofer, S. I., Küchemann, S., Kuhn, J., Schmid, R., Altmeyer, K., Brünken, R., & Lichtenberger, A. (2023) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-023-00435-6 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
How Do We Assess the Trustworthiness of AI? Introducing the Trustworthiness Assessment Model (TrAM)
Schlicker, N., Baum, K., Uhde, A., Sterz, S., Hirsch, M. C., & Langer, M. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/qhwvx · Cited by 79 · see citing works

Authors: Borsboom, D., Mellenbergh, G. J., & van Heerden, J.
Affiliations: University of Amsterdam (NL)
ORCID: Borsboom, Denny
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2003-04
Volume: 110
Issue: 2
Pages: 203-219
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.110.2.203
OpenAlex: W2122621931
Cited by: 1,566
References: 137
Citations by year: 2026: 42 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 74 · 2023: 182 · 2022: 91 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 151 · 2019: 83 · 2018: 76 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 49 · 2015: 87 · 2014: 62 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 76
FWCI: 35.24
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion)
Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Social Sciences › Education › Educational Assessment and Pedagogy
Keywords: latent variables, latent variable models, test theory, realism, ontology, measurement model, indicators, causal interpretation, individual differences
MeSH terms: Humans, Psychological Theory, Psychology, Semantics

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

The theoretical status of latent variables.

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks