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A framework for predicting the non-visual effects of daylight – Part I: photobiology- based model
Open accessAbstract
This paper investigates the formulation of a modelling framework for the non-visual effects of daylight, such as entrainment of the circadian system and maintenance of alertness. The body of empirical data from photobiology studies is now sufficient to start developing preliminary non-visual lighting evaluation methods for lighting design. Eventually, these non-visual effects have the potential to become a relevant quantity to consider when assessing the overall daylighting performance of a space. This paper describes the assumptions and general approach that were developed to propose a modeling framework for occupant exposure to non-visual effects of light, and presents a novel means of visualising the ‘circadian potential’ of a point in space. The proposed approach uses current outcomes of photobiology research to define – at this point static – threshold values for illumination in terms of spectrum, intensity and timing of light at the human eye. These values are then translated into goals for lighting simulation, based on vertical illuminance at the eye, that – ultimately – could become goals for building design. A new climate-based simulation model has been developed to apply these concepts to a residential environment. This will be described in Part 2 of this paper.
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“In fact, in the early to mid-morning (06:00 to 10:00) and in the evening (18:00 to 22:00), humans experience a state of transition [90], which is a “heat gain” in the morning (as the core body temperature climbs) and a “heat loss” in the evening (as the core body temperature drops).”
From Human thermal perception and time of day: A review (2021) · cites this paper as [90]
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“4 of 18 Recently, there has been renewed attention on the thermal indoor environment and potential nonvisual effects of daylighting in residential buildings [15] as part of a movement towards sustainable buildings with a focus on user well-being [16].”
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“Finally, the “in house” workflow developed by Mardaljevic is not publically available and thus cannot be incorporated into the workflows used by designers to inform decision-making.”
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Dim light at night disturbs the daily sleep-wake cycle in the rat
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Self-citationMeasuring circadian lighting through high dynamic range photography
Jung, B.-J., & Inanici, M. N. (2018) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/1477153518792597 · Cited by 62
A framework for predicting the non-visual effects of daylight – Part II: The simulation model
Mardaljevic, J., Andersen, M., Roy, N., & Christoffersen, J. (2013) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/1477153513491873 · Cited by 64
“A linear relation was assumed for values between these limits [8]:”
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Dogan, T., & Park, Y. (2018) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/1477153518755561 · Cited by 56
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“Light with relatively high melanopic EDI was offered in the early morning as research has shown that this could advance and stabilize the circadian phase [30,48,49], reduce sleep latency [57], improve sleep quality [3,8,58] and facilitate daytime alertness, mood, and task performance [20,25,30,52].”
BackgroundUnified framework to evaluate non-visual spectral effectiveness of light for human health
Ámundadóttir, M. L., Lockley, S. W., & Andersen, M. (2016) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/1477153516655844 · Cited by 58
Self-citationA photobiological approach to biophilic design in extreme climates
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“As a major limitation, this method has only been used to analyze the circadian effects of three types of skylights including D55, D65 and D75 [86, 87].”
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Tabadkani, A., Roetzel, A., Li, H., & Tsangrassoulis, A. (2021) · Journal of Daylighting · doi:10.15627/jd.2021.16 · Cited by 53
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“Although people who live at latitudes with a short daylength have less exposure to solar insolation during winter, indoor lighting is optimized for vision (Andersen et al., 2012; van Bommel, 2006; van Bommel and van den Beld, 2004).”
BackgroundThe potential influence of LED lighting on mental illness
Bauer, M., Glenn, T., Monteith, S., Gottlieb, J. F., Ritter, P. S., Geddes, J. R., & Whybrow, P. C. (2017) · The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/15622975.2017.1417639 · Cited by 47
“The process is challenging since many interrelated factors affect the impact of lighting on circadian functions including the spectrum, intensity, time of day of exposure, length of exposure, pattern hitting retina, distance from retina, prior light history, age of the viewer, and lighting in surroundings (Rea et al.…”
BackgroundSyncing with the Sky: Daylight-Driven Circadian Lighting Design
Vaz, N. A., & Inanici, M. N. (2020) · LEUKOS The Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America · doi:10.1080/15502724.2020.1785310 · Cited by 44
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Vellei, M., Chinazzo, G., Zitting, K.-M., & Hubbard, J. (2021) · Temperature · doi:10.1080/23328940.2021.1976004 · Cited by 45
“In fact, in the early to midmorning (06:00 to 10:00) and in the evening (18:00 to 22:00), humans experience a state of transition [90], which is a “heat gain” in the morning (as the core body temperature climbs) and a “heat loss” in the evening (as the core body temperature drops).”
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Kent, M. G., Altomonte, S., Tregenza, P. R., & Wilson, R. (2014) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/1477153514547291 · Cited by 42
Zeng, Y., Sun, H., & Lin, B. (2021) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108238 · Cited by 42
Konis, K. (2019) · Solar Energy · doi:10.1016/j.solener.2019.09.020 · Cited by 44
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“…research topic due to energy efficiency concerns (Reinhart and Selkowits 2006), its positive relation with workplace performance and health (Andersen et al. 2012), its non-visual effects such as the entrainment of circadian rhythm and the improvement of physiological and psychological…”
BackgroundWest, A. S., Simonsen, S. A., Jennum, P., Hansen, N. C., Schønsted, M., Zielinski, A. H., Sander, B., & Iversen, H. K. (2019) · Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.3233/nre-192752 · Cited by 38
“A difference in daylight exposure between IU and CU at the door bed was observed, but all illuminance levels fell below the required level of 200 lux D55 equivalent light that would stimulate the circadian center (Andersen et al., 2012).”
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“[12] and Phipps-Nelson [13], in [16], a ramp function reporting the non-visual effect, NVE, of daylight as a function of the visual illuminance (considering a D55 illuminant) is described.”
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“The complexity of non-visual physiological responses and the need to balance benefits and harmful effects pose many challenges for developing new standards (29, 70, 71).”
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Self-citationClimate-based daylight analysis of fixed shading devices in an open-plan office
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“The model outputs are time-sampled relative non-visual responses, that we will use as proxy for healthy non-visual lightexposure in the same way we previously used subjective alertness (Pechacek et al., 2008; Gochenour & Andersen, 2009; Andersen et al., 2012).”
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“The mechanisms for these effects are not yet fully understood, and it is not yet known what the preferred exposure levels should be, nor if existing guidelines would be effective for these quantities [2].”
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Gkaintatzi-Masouti, M., van Duijnhoven, J., & Aarts, M. M. (2022) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/14771535221142812 · Cited by 20
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“Moreover, given its impact on the human circadian rhythm, is it also regarded as an important resource for the creation of healthy indoor environments (van Bommel 2006; Andersen, Mardaljevic, and Lockley 2012; Veitch and Galasiu 2012 Bellia and Bisegna 2013; Amundadottir et al. 2017).”
BackgroundAnalytical evolution of measurement methods for light's non-visual effects
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“A day-time exposure schedule may not be universally appropriate, for example for night shift nurses who work during the hours of darkness (Andersen et al., 2012) or workers and patients needing to sleep during daylight hours.”
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“Andersen et al.70 highlighted BL in the afternoon may improve alertness, but would not exert substantial phase-shifting effects on the circadian system.”
BackgroundInfluentialKim, S., & Casement, M. D. (2024) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2024.2341156 · Cited by 14
“It is also reported that higher light intensity, ranging from 2,000 to 10 000 lux has shown larger effects in treating various sleep-related problems, including circadian rhythm sleep disorders and insomnia (Andersen et al. 2012).”
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“An in-depth knowledge of Spectral Power Distribution (SPD) is vital for successful optical systems implementation [78].”
On the Role of Exponential Smoothing in Circadian Dosimetry
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“, sleep-wake cycle regulation, circadian rhythm, seasonal affective disorder, sense of well-being) [18, 19], and with scholastic performance [20].”
BackgroundDAYLIGHT, HUMAN HEALTH, AND DESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE GREEN BUILDINGS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Lee, J., Boubekri, M., & Park, J. (2022) · Journal of Green Building · doi:10.3992/jgb.17.4.151 · Cited by 12
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Pandemic of Childhood Myopia. Could New Indoor LED Lighting Be Part of the Solution?
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“It is desirable that people are exposed to bright light during 10:00–18:00 for its potential to increase alertness [54,55].”
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“This study was extended and modified by Andersen et al. (2012), where the 24-hour day was divided into three periods to distinguish between the effects of exposure time.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationMonitoring and rendering of visual and photo-biological properties of daylight-redirecting systems
Borisuit, A., Kämpf, J. H., Münch, M. Y., Thanachareonkit, A., & Scartezzini, J. (2016) · Solar Energy · doi:10.1016/j.solener.2015.12.052 · Cited by 10
“…illuminance thresholds were considered as ‘‘benchmark” for non-visual aspects of each light source (mainly for daylight as D55, D65 or D75) (Andersen et al., 2011); the threshold values were used in DAYSIM, a computer software based on RADIANCE, in order to predict alerting levels as…”
MethodAdamsson, M., Laike, T., & Morita, T. (2018) · LEUKOS The Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America · doi:10.1080/15502724.2017.1391101 · Cited by 11
“As a result of increasing knowledge of the field, different models and sensitivity functions for estimating the non-image-forming effects of light radiation have been proposed, although recent findings provide a more complex picture of how light radiation of different intensities and spectral compositions affects the…”
BackgroundStebelová, K., Kováčová, K., Dzirbíková, Z., Hanuliak, P., Bacigál, T., Hartman, P., Vargová, A., & Hraška, J. (2023) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.111025 · Cited by 9
Potočnik, J., & Košir, M. (2023) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings13051357 · Cited by 9
Should an Artificial Window Substitute a Natural One?
Gomes, C. C., & Preto, S. (2017) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-60492-3_24 · Cited by 9
Bisht, D. S., Kumar, V., Singh, S., Garg, H., & Kumar, R. R. S. (2023) · Solar Energy · doi:10.1016/j.solener.2023.112066 · Cited by 8
Analyzing potential correlations between light exposure and skin temperature in a climate chamber
Tamura, C. A., Krüger, E. L., Wagner, A., & Strauhs, F. D. R. (2021) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108242 · Cited by 8
Kim, K. R., Lee, K. S., & Cho, H. (2025) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings15162955 · Cited by 7
The Effect of the Colour Selection for Internal Surfaces on Non-Visual Daylight Human Response
Hartman, P., Hanuliak, P., Maňková, L., & Hraška, J. (2014) · Advanced materials research · doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.1057.231 · Cited by 7
Statistical Methods Applied to Optimize Perforated Façade Design for Daylight Availability
Chi, D. A., Moreno-Rangel, D., & Casas, J. N. (2018) · Journal of Architectural Engineering · doi:10.1061/(asce)ae.1943-5568.0000339 · Cited by 7
Spatial representations of melanopic light in architecture
Lalande, P., Demers, C. M. H., Lalonde, J., Potvin, A., & Hébert, M. (2020) · Architectural Science Review · doi:10.1080/00038628.2020.1785383 · Cited by 7
“…Skene 2001; Lucas et al. 2014) has led researchers in architectural daylighting to integrate newly developed melanopic metrics into architecture (Andersen, Mardaljevic, and Lockley 2012; Bellia and Seraceni 2013; Konis 2017; Ámundadóttir et al. 2017; Chen, Zhang, andDu 2019), such as Circadian…”
BackgroundHong, L., Wang, C., & Zhang, X. (2024) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings14041090 · Cited by 6
Sustainable Architecture and Human Health: A Case for Effective Circadian Daylighting Metrics
Mukherjee, B., & Boubekri, M. (2025) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings15030315 · Cited by 8
“While the exact boundaries of the timing of light exposure have not yet been defined, Andersen et al. [32] have defined three distinct timings for circadian entrainment.”
Cheng, X., Yan, Y., Hu, T., Lv, Y., & Zeng, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1093602 · Cited by 6
“Capped graph (Andersen et al., 2012) 2012 Yes Yes Yes Yes No Architectural space”
BackgroundRastegari, E., Adamsson, M., & Aries, M. M. (2024) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/14771535241268606 · Cited by 6
“49 According to their model, the circadian system’s phase-resetting can occur from 06.00 to 10.00, during which sufficient daylight exposure can set the biological clock to phase-advance in most individuals.”
InfluentialThe impact of the primary colours yellow, red and, blue on the perception of greenery
Thorpert, P., Englund, J., & Nielsen, A. B. (2018) · Landscape Research · doi:10.1080/01426397.2017.1413177 · Cited by 6
Evaluating the overall impression of concert lighting: An integrated approach
Lo, V., & Steemers, K. (2021) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/14771535211014787 · Cited by 6
Aelenei, D., Aelenei, L., Loonen, R., Perino, M., Serra, V., Asdrubali, F., & Desideri, U. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-812817-6.00039-5 · Cited by 9
Landscape Analysis: Connected Lighting System
Chaichi, N., & Daim, T. U. (2018) · Innovation, technology and knowledge management · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-68987-6_3 · Cited by 5
Yilmaz, F. (2021) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/1477153520987420 · Cited by 5
Metadata
- Authors
- Andersen, M., Mardaljevic, J., & Lockley, S.
- Affiliations
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (CH)
- De Montfort University (GB)
- Division of Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Division of Sleep Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Corresponding author
- Andersen, M
- Venue
- Lighting Research & Technology
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2012-02-13
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 37-53
- ISSN
- 0024-3426 (ISSN-L)
- 1477-1535
- 1477-0938
- OpenAlex
- W2103289434
- Cited by
- 177
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 4.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- dspace.lboro.ac.uk
- Licence
- Locations
- Lighting Research & Technology (publishedVersion)
- DMU Open Research Archive (De Montfort University) (submittedVersion)
- Loughborough University Institutional Repository (Loughborough University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Surrey Research Insight Open Access (The University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Loughborough University Research Repository (Loughborough University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Infoscience (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) (submittedVersion)
- Infoscience (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Building Energy and Comfort Optimization
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Impact of Light on Environment and Health
- Keywords
- circadian entrainment, alertness, photobiology, lighting simulation
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