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Cited by 113Child Abuse and TraumaChild Welfare and AdoptionChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

Physical Abuse, Emotional Abuse, and Neglect and Childhood Behavior Problems: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in Mainland China

Open access
Cui, Naixue, Liu, Jianghong·2020·Trauma, Violence, & Abuse
DOI 10.1177/1524838018757750PMC PMC10064579
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

The relationship between three types of child maltreatment, including physical abuse, emotional abuse and neglect, and childhood behavior problems in Mainland China, has not been systematically examined. This meta-analysis reviewed findings from 42 studies conducted in 98,749 children in Mainland China and analyzed the pooled effect sizes of the associations between child maltreatment and childhood behavior problems, heterogeneity in study findings, and publication bias. In addition, this study explored cross-study similarities/differences by comparing the pooled estimates with findings from five existing meta-analyses. Equivalent small-to-moderate effect sizes emerged in the relationships between the three types of maltreatment and child externalizing and internalizing behaviors, except that emotional abuse related more to internalizing than externalizing behaviors. Considerable heterogeneity exists among the 42 studies. Weak evidence suggests that child gender and reporter of emotional abuse may moderate the strengths of the relationships between child maltreatment and behavior problems. No indication of publication bias emerged. Cross-study comparisons show that the pooled effect sizes in this meta-analysis are about equal to those reported in the five meta-analyses conducted in child and adult populations across the world. Findings urge relevant agencies in Mainland China to build an effective child protection system to prevent child maltreatment.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This meta-analysis of 42 studies in 98,749 children in Mainland China found small-to-moderate associations between physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect and childhood externalizing/internalizing behavior problems. Emotional abuse was more strongly related to internalizing than externalizing behaviors, and pooled estimates were comparable to five existing global meta-analyses.

Key findings

  • Physical abuse was associated with externalizing behaviors (Hedges’s g = .503, 95% CI [0.358, 0.649]) and internalizing behaviors (g = .493, 95% CI [0.469, 0.518]).
  • Emotional abuse was associated with externalizing (g = .348, 95% CI [0.150, 0.547]) and internalizing behaviors (g = .592, 95% CI [0.489, 0.695]); the internalizing association was larger than the externalizing association (Q = 5.961, p = .015).
  • Neglect was associated with externalizing (g = .266, 95% CI [0.087, 0.444]) and internalizing behaviors (g = .460, 95% CI [0.340, 0.580]); these did not differ significantly.
  • Considerable heterogeneity was present (majority of I² values > 75%, p < .001); no publication bias was indicated, and cross-study comparison showed pooled estimates about equal to five existing meta-analyses.

Methods

  • Systematic search of two Chinese databases and three English databases in May 2016 plus reference lists; included 42 studies (46 articles) of children under 18 from Mainland China, total N = 98,749, average mean age 12.13 years, average 48.7% girls.
  • Random-effects meta-analyses were run separately by maltreatment type and behavior problem level; effect sizes were calculated as Hedges’s g from correlations, odds ratios, means/SDs, or frequencies/proportions; heterogeneity was assessed with I² and Q, moderators via meta-regression/Q statistics, and publication bias via fail-safe N, funnel plot, and trim-and-fill.
  • Cross-study comparison used five existing meta-analyses identified through a Scopus search from 2012 onward, with pooled estimates converted to Cohen’s d for comparability.

Limitations

  • The paper states that definitions and measures of physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect varied considerably across the 42 studies, including differences in whether mild physical abuse was included and which neglect domains were assessed.
  • The paper states that participants were relatively homogeneous (students attending regular schools in Han-populated regions), most studies were cross-sectional (only two longitudinal), so causality cannot be inferred; moderator analyses for child gender, reporter, and abuser were limited to few studies, and effect sizes were unadjusted.
  • Evident from the text: some pooled estimates had wide confidence intervals, and the authors describe the moderator evidence as weak.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/1524838018757750

Cites

55 of 55 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 32 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    There was considerable heterogeneity among the 42 studies.

    “Considerable heterogeneity exists among the 42 studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Mixed child maltreatment was associated with increased externalizing behaviors, with Hedges's g = .713 (95% CI [0.436, 1.989]).

    “All studies that examined the relationship between child maltreatment without differentiating its subtypes reported increased externalizing (Hedges’s g = .713, 95% CI [0.436, 1.989]) and internalizing (Hedges’s g = .626, 95% CI [0.260,0.902]) behaviors about equally (Figure 5 and Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Mixed child maltreatment was associated with increased internalizing behaviors, with Hedges's g = .626 (95% CI [0.260, 0.902]).

    “All studies that examined the relationship between child maltreatment without differentiating its subtypes reported increased externalizing (Hedges’s g = .713, 95% CI [0.436, 1.989]) and internalizing (Hedges’s g = .626, 95% CI [0.260,0.902]) behaviors about equally (Figure 5 and Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Emotional abuse was associated with increased internalizing behaviors, with a pooled estimate of 0.592 (95% CI [0.489, 0.695]).

    “All studies on emotional abuse and internalizing behaviors reported positive relationships and the pooled estimate was 0.592 (95% CI [0.489, 0.695]).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Emotional abuse was more strongly associated with Level-2 problems such as depression, self-injury, and somatic complaints than with aggression (p values < .05).

    “Specifically, the associations of emotional abuse with Level-2 behavior problems, including depression, self-injury behavior, and somatic complaints, were higher than that of emotional abuse with aggression (p values < .05; see Figure 3 and Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 20
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    No significant differences were found between physical abuse and Level-1 or Level-2 behavior problems, since all confidence intervals overlapped.

    “All the 95% CIs were overlapped, indicating there were not significant differences in the relationships between physical abuse and Level-1 or Level-2 behavior problems (see Figure 2 and Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Most studies showed substantial heterogeneity, with the majority of I2 values exceeding 75% (p values < .001).

    “Despite some exceptions, there was substantial heterogeneity among most of the studies evidenced by the majority of I2 values >75% (p values < .001, Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Neglect showed similar associations with all Level-2 behavior problems, as all confidence intervals overlapped.

    “Neglect was also associated with all Level-2 behavior problems about equally because all 95% CI overlapped (see Figure 4 and Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Child gender and the reporter of maltreatment were identified as potential moderators of the heterogeneity.

    “Child gender and reporter of child maltreatment were identified as potential moderators that may contribute to the heterogeneity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The average proportion of girls across the included studies was 48.7%.

    “These studies were conducted among 98,749 children with an average mean age of 12.13 years and an average of 48.7% girls in all the seven regions of Mainland China.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The pooled effect sizes for the associations of physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect with child externalizing and internalizing behaviors were small-to-moderate and similar across the three maltreatment types.

    “Equivalent small-to-moderate effect sizes emerged in the relationships between the three types of maltreatment and child externalizing and internalizing behaviors”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    The 42 included studies comprised 98,749 children from all seven regions of Mainland China.

    “These studies were conducted among 98,749 children with an average mean age of 12.13 years and an average of 48.7% girls in all the seven regions of Mainland China.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Fail-safe N values were large enough to reduce the mean effect below significance for physical abuse with externalizing (N = 845) or internalizing (N = 3,500), emotional abuse with externalizing (N = 582) or internalizing (N = 8,190), and neglect with externalizing (N = 171) or internalizing (N = 2,366).

    “The fail-safe N numbers were very large to reduce the mean effect size below the level of significance for the relationship between physical abuse and externalizing (N = 845) or internalizing behaviors (N = 3,500), between emotional abuse and externalizing (N = 582) or internalizing behaviors (N = 8,190), and between neglect and externalizing (N = 171) or internalizing behaviors (N = 2,366).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The meta-analysis found that physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect were each associated with a broad range of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems among children in Mainland China.

    “The present meta-analysis found that all three types of child maltreatment related to a broad spectrum of childhood behavior problems, including externalizing and internalizing behaviors in Mainland China.”
    • Also stated in: § Conclusion · boosted
      “Findings showed child maltreatment was undoubtedly related to a broad spectrum of childhood behavior problems among Chinese children.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The instruments used in the included studies validly measure child maltreatment and childhood behavior problems.
    • Rests on an assumption: The 42 included studies are representative enough of children in Mainland China for the pooled associations to generalize to Chinese children.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Measures of emotional abuse included public humiliation, verbal abuse, or combined behaviors such as these plus threats of hitting.

    “Emotional abuse was measured by public humiliation (Olson et al., 2011), verbal abuse (X. Liu et al., 2008), or multiple behaviors including both and threatening to hit (e.g., B. Liu, Wei, Xing, & Wang, 2012; Pan, 2010; Tao et al., 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Olson et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites X. Liu et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites B. Liu, Wei, Xing, & Wang, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Physical abuse was defined in some studies by several specific violent parental acts (e.g., hitting, beating, kicking), while other studies used only terms like 'physical punishment' or 'being hit'.

    “the present meta-analysis found that some studies defined physical abuse using multiple specific parental violent behaviors such as hitting, beating, and kicking (e.g., Kwok et al., 2013; Tang et al., 2011), whereas others simply referred to “physical punishment” or “being hit” (Hesketh et al., 2011; X. Liu, Sun, & Yang, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Kwok et al., 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Tang et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hesketh et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Most neglect studies used the Child Psychological Abuse and Neglect Scale, developed by Chinese researchers from the CTQ, CTSPC, and Chinese sociocultural context, assessing physical, psychological, and educational neglect; other studies used the CTQ and measured only psychological and physical neglect.

    “The majority of studies on neglect applied the Child Psychological Abuse and Neglect Scale developed by Chinese researchers based on the CTQ, the CTSPC, and the Chinese sociocultural context and assessed physical, psychological, and educational neglect (A. Liu & Nian, 2012; Yang, 2012), whereas others applied the CTQ and only measured psychological and physical neglect.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites A. Liu & Nian, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Yang, 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Associations were roughly similar across maltreatment types and across behavior problem types or subtypes.

    “The associations of different types of child maltreatment and different types/subtypes of childhood behavior problems were about equivalent.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The instruments used in the included studies validly measure child maltreatment and childhood behavior problems.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Every study in this meta-analysis assessed behavior problems with subjective questionnaires, not diagnostic criteria, while the comparison meta-analyses used diagnostic outcomes.

    “All studies included in the present meta-analysis measured behavior problems using subjective questionnaires rather than diagnostic standards, whereas the other meta-analyses included studies using diagnostic behavior problems as outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    All meta-analyses had overlapping 95% confidence intervals, so the observed differences were not statistically significant.

    “Nevertheless, the 95% CI overlapped across all meta-analyses, indicating that the observed differences were not significant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Effect sizes from the present meta-analysis and the five comparison meta-analyses are comparable enough for direct cross-study comparison.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Sensitivity analyses were conducted to test uncertainty in the study findings.

    “Sensitivity analyses were conducted to test the uncertainty in the study findings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Two raters independently screened search results according to eligibility criteria, and disagreements were resolved by consensus to reduce bias and errors.

    “Two raters screened the search results independently based on the eligibility criteria. Disagreements were resolved by consensus to reduce bias and errors (Buscemi, Hartling, Vandermeer, Tjosvold, & Klassen, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Buscemi, Hartling, Vandermeer, Tjosvold, & Klassen, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Asymmetry in a funnel plot can occur if publication favors larger studies with null or opposite-direction results over smaller studies with similar results.

    “An asymmetrical funnel plot might arise if larger studies with nonsignificant results or with an effect size in the nonhypothesized direction are preferentially published, while smaller studies with such findings are less likely to be published (Sterne & Egger, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sterne & Egger, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Study quality was assessed by two raters using the modified NIH quality assessment instrument for observational cohort and cross-sectional studies.

    “The same two raters appraised the quality of each study using the modified Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-sectional Studies (National Institute of Health, 2014) based on each study’s objective(s), sampling description, measurement, and analysis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites National Institute of Health, 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Disagreements in quality assessment between raters were resolved by consensus.

    “Disagreements in the assessment between the raters were resolved by consensus.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Moderator analyses indicated that child gender and the reporter of maltreatment might explain some heterogeneity, though the evidence remains weak.

    “Moderator analysis showed that child gender and reporter of child maltreatment may contribute to the heterogeneity among study findings, but the evidence is still weak.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Studying behavior problems in childhood that are related to maltreatment is useful for preventing behavior problems at an earlier life stage.

    “Investigation of child maltreatment–related childhood behavior problems is informative for prevention of behavior problems at an earlier life stage.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Reports sharing a study were grouped using author names, location, and sample features, and treated as one study when they examined different maltreatment or behavior problems.

    “Articles from the same study were identified based on the author names, study location, and sample characteristics and were coded as one study if they focused on different maltreatment or behavior problems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The pooled effect sizes indicate that various maltreatment types are associated with various behavior problems to a similar degree, with small-to-moderate effects, except emotional abuse is more strongly linked to internalizing than externalizing behaviors.

    “The pooled estimates suggest that different types of child maltreatment relate to different types of behavior problems approximately equally, with small-to-moderate effect sizes, except that emotional abuse related more to internalizing than externalizing behaviors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The instruments used in the included studies validly measure child maltreatment and childhood behavior problems.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Publication bias was estimated using three methods: classic fail-safe N, funnel plot, and trim-and-fill.

    “Publication bias was estimated using three methods such as the classic fail-safe N, funnel plot, and the trim-and-fill method.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In China in 2010, the economic cost of physical abuse was about 0.47% of GDP (US$27 billion) and of emotional abuse about 0.84% (US$50 billion).

    “Based on the modest associations of physical and emotional abuse with mental health problems in China, Fang et al. (2015) estimated that the economic cost of physical and emotional abuse was 0.47% and 0.84% of the gross domestic product (i.e., about US$27 and US$50 billion) in 2010, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fang et al. (2015)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Externalizing and internalizing problems in childhood are major risk factors for adult crime, violence, and mental disorders.

    “Also, childhood externalizing and internalizing behaviors are major risk factors for many social, societal, and health outcomes such as adulthood crime, violence, and mental disorders (for meta-analyses, see Leschied et al., 2008; Reef et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Leschied et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Reef et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Mild physical abuse conventionally accepted as ordinary discipline is still related to behavior problems.

    “Some studies (e.g., Ge et al., 2013; Tao et al., 2006; Yu et al., 2013; W. Zhang et al., 2013) may have excluded physical abuse in its mild form that are conventionally accepted as ordinary discipline but still related to behavior problems (Gershoff, 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gershoff, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Comparisons across studies gave preliminary evidence that maltreatment-behavior problem associations have similar strength across populations and countries, including between Mainland Chinese children and prior meta-analyses of child and adult samples.

    “The cross-study comparisons provided initial evidence of the equal strength of the relationship between child maltreatment and behavior problems across populations and countries.”
    • Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
      “In addition, associations between child maltreatment and behavior problems in Mainland Chinese children were equal to the estimates in some existing meta-analyses of studies of child and adult populations across the world.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Effect sizes from the present meta-analysis and the five comparison meta-analyses are comparable enough for direct cross-study comparison.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    It remains possible that behavior problems raise the risk of maltreatment.

    “Hence, no causal relationship can be inferred, and the possibility that behavior problems increase the risk of child maltreatment should not be ruled out.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    Adjusting for confounders-particularly co-occurring maltreatment, family dysfunction, and parental mental and behavioral health-might alter the association between maltreatment and behavior problems.

    “It is possible that the relationship can change after adjusting for confounding variables, especially co-occurring maltreatment, family dysfunction, and parental behavioral and mental health (Norman et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Norman et al., 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

31 of 31

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The relationship between three types of child maltreatment and childhood behavior problems in Mainland China had not been systematically examined before this meta-analysis.

    “The relationship between three types of child maltreatment, including physical abuse, emotional abuse and neglect, and childhood behavior problems in Mainland China, has not been systematically examined.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Existing reviews focused on studies conducted in child and adult populations together and failed to differentiate between them.

    “First, they focused on studies conducted in child and adult populations together and failed to differentiate between them.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Whether different types of child maltreatment relate to different behavior problems equally or differently was still unclear.

    “Second, whether different types of child maltreatment relate to different behavior problems equally or differently is still unclear.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many possible factors that could contribute to heterogeneity in relationships between child maltreatment and behavior problems had not been analyzed in existing meta-analyses.

    “Third, many possible factors that could contribute to the heterogeneity in relationships between child maltreatment and behavior problems have not been analyzed in the existing meta-analyses.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Whether child or parental gender moderates the average effect size of the association of child maltreatment and behavior problems was unclear.

    “however, whether child or parental gender moderates the average effect size of the association of child maltreatment and behavior problems is unclear.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Cross-study similarities and differences in the pooled estimates of the associations between child maltreatment and behavior problems among existing meta-analyses had not been analyzed.

    “Lastly, the cross-study similarities and differences in the pooled estimates of the associations between child maltreatment and behavior problems among existing meta-analyses have not been analyzed.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The instruments used in the included studies validly measure child maltreatment and childhood behavior problems.

    “Nine studies used the CTSPC, 6 used the CTQ , 5 used self-developed instruments, and the remaining 22 studies used other tools to assess child maltreatment.”
    “First, considerable variations exist in how researchers defined and measured physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect across the 42 studies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The child maltreatment assessed in the included studies was perpetrated by parents, guardians, or other family members in the household.

    “Findings from the 42 studies conducted among 98,749 Chinese children supported the hypothesis that physical abuse, emotional abuse, and neglect by parents, guardians, and other family members in the household are undoubtedly associated with a broad spectrum of behavior problems in childhood.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 42 included studies are representative enough of children in Mainland China for the pooled associations to generalize to Chinese children.

    “Second, child participants in the 42 studies were diverse in gender, age, and geographic region. However, they were relatively homogenous considering that all were students attending regular schools in the regions where Han Chinese people populate.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Effect sizes from the present meta-analysis and the five comparison meta-analyses are comparable enough for direct cross-study comparison.

    “The point estimates of the pooled effect size in the present study were consistently and slightly larger than the estimates in the other five meta-analyses, especially regarding physical and emotional abuse.”
10 of 10

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Mixed-maltreatment externalizing estimate is not centered in its confidence interval

    Major

    The reported 95% confidence interval has a midpoint of 1.2125, far from the reported pooled Hedges's g of .713. The estimate and interval cannot both be correct as a symmetric confidence interval on the reported effect-size scale.

    Reported 0.713 · recomputed 1.2125

  • Parent-report study count differs between sections

    Minor

    The study characteristics section gives two different counts of studies collecting maltreatment data from parents: nine and eight.

  • Article screening counts do not reach 46

    Minor

    The screening counts leave 48 articles after full-text review (153 − 105), and the additional eligible article brings the total to 49, not 46.

    Reported 46 · recomputed 48

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

3 of the 58 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 30

  1. *Chen X. (2015). The relationship among psychological maltreatment and neglect, resilience, and depression of junior middle students (Master’s thesis). Harbin Normal University, Heilongjiang, China.
  2. *Cheng P., 2010, Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 18, 250
  3. *Du A., 2014, Sichuan Journal of Mental Health, 27, 10
  4. *Ge X., 2013, Chinese Journal of Epidemiology, 34, 5
  5. Gershoff E. T, 2010, Law & Contemporary Problems, 73, 31
  6. *Li P. (2013). Relational aggression, self-supporting personality, and psychological abuse and neglect (Master’s thesis). Qufu Normal University, Shandong, China.
  7. *Li Y., 2012, Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20, 813
  8. *Liu A., 2012, Journal of Psychological Science, 35, 911
  9. *Liu B., 2012, Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 20, 842
  10. *Liu J., 2016, Chinese Journal of School Health, 37, 567
  11. *Luo A., 2013, Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21, 236
  12. *Ma M., 2011, Chinese Journal of Epidemiology, 32, 130
  13. *Pan C. (2010). The revision of Child Psychological Maltreatment Scale and the epidemiological investigation of child psychological maltreatment (PhD dissertation). Central South University, Hunan, China.
  14. *Su J., 2015, Chinese Journal of School Health, 36, 1326
  15. *Tan J. (2014). The correlation study of child abuse and children’s emotional and behavioral problems in an elementary school of Changsha (Master’s thesis). Central South University, Hunan, China.
  16. *Tao F., 2006, Chinese Journal of Pediatrics, 44, 688
  17. United Nations Children’s Fund, 2012, Measuring and monitoring child protection systems: Proposed core indicators for the East Asia and Pacific Region
  18. *Wan Y. (2015). The role of pain processing in the relationship between childhood physical abuse and non-suicidal self-injury behaviors among middle school students (PhD dissertation). Anhui Medical University, Anhui, China.
  19. World Health Organization, 2006, Preventing child maltreatment: A guide to taking action and generating evidence
  20. *Wu Y., 2011, Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology, 19, 502, 494
  21. *Xiao Y., 2008, Chinese Journal of School Health, 24, 1028
  22. *Xu T. (2015). The research about parents’ harsh discipline and children’s temperament and behavior problems (Master’s dissertation). Shanxi University, Shanxi, China.
  23. *Yang M., 2012, Chinese Journal of Special Education, 12, 64
  24. *Yu T., 2013, Child Journal of School Doctor, 27, 161
  25. *Zhang L., 2008, Medicine and Society, 21, 52
  26. *Zhang W., 2013, Chinese Journal of Public Health, 29, 1165
  27. *Zhang Z., 2003, Chinese Journal of Mental Health, 17, 852
  28. *Zhu M., 2013, Chinese Journal of Special Education, 10, 80
  29. *Zhu M., 2010, Paper presented at the 2010 International Conference on Psychology Psychological Sciences and Computer Science (PPSCS)
  30. *Zou F., 2012, Chinese Journal of School Health, 33, 1077

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Cui, N., & Liu, J.
Affiliations
  • Shandong University (CN)
  • University of Pennsylvania (US)
Corresponding author
Cui, Naixue
ORCID
Venue
Trauma, Violence, & Abuse
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2018-02-13
Volume
21
Issue
1
Pages
206-224
ISSN
  • 1524-8380 (ISSN-L)
  • 1552-8324
DOI
10.1177/1524838018757750
PMC
PMC10064579
OpenAlex
W2788691505
Cited by
113
References
58
Citations by year
2026: 21 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 1
FWCI
0.84
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
  • Trauma Violence & Abuse (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
Office of Nursing Research at University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
  • Social Sciences › Safety Research › Child Welfare and Adoption
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords
child abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, child neglect, child behavior problems, externalizing problems, internalizing problems, child protection, mainland China, gender differences
MeSH terms
Emotional Abuse, Adolescent, Behavioral Symptoms, Child, Child Abuse, Child Behavior Disorders, China, Female, Humans, Male

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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