Black Debt, White Debt
Open accessAbstract
Racial discrimination shapes who feels debt as a crushing burden and who experiences debt as an opportunity. U.S. financial products and rules, and the ways they’re implemented, amplify this inequality along racial lines.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Debt can be misleading as a measure of disadvantage because wealthier families, who are more likely to be white, often have access to strong credit and high amounts of 'good debt' with favorable repayment terms.
“Notably, however, debt can be misleading, as wealthier families, who are more likely to be white, often have access to strong credit and high amounts of what is coded as 'good debt' (e.g., real estate, property, and vehicles) with favorable repayment terms (Killewald, 2013; Seamster, 2019).”
From Wealth, Race, and Under-Addressed Financial Need in Federal Student Aid Policy (2025) · cites this paper as Seamster, 2019
People of color are more likely to be burdened by medical or predatory debt, and to be in default on other types of debt.
“are more likely to be burdened by medical or predatory debt, and to be in default on other types of debt (Charron-Chénier & Seamster, 2020; Seamster, 2019).”
From Debt, Incarceration, and Re-entry: a Scoping Review (2021) · cites this paper as Seamster, 2019
Cites
Sassen, S. (2014) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.4159/9780674369818 · Cited by 1,228 · see citing works
Black Wealth/White Wealth: A New Perspective on Racial Inequality
Grimes, P. W., Oliver, M. L., & Shapiro, T. M. (1997) · Southern Economic Journal · doi:10.2307/1061122 · Cited by 767 · see citing works
A Pound of Flesh: Monetary Sanctions as Punishment for the Poor
Lynch, M. (2018) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.1177/0094306117744805u · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Lower Ed: The Troubling Rise of For-Profit Colleges in the New Economy
Gregory, K. (2017) · Journal of Cultural Economy · doi:10.1080/17530350.2017.1382384 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Baradaran, M. (2017) · Harvard University Press eBooks · doi:10.4159/9780674982284 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
What is environmental racism for? Place-based harm and relational development
Seamster, L., & Purifoy, D. (2021) · Environmental Sociology · doi:10.1080/23251042.2020.1790331 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Self-citationDebt, Incarceration, and Re-entry: a Scoping Review
Harper, A., Ginapp, C., Bardelli, T., Grimshaw, A., Justen, M., Mohamedali, A., Thomas, I., & Puglisi, L. (2021) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-020-09559-9 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Disparate Recoveries: Wealth, Race, and the Working Class after the Great Recession
Addo, F. R., & Darity, W. A. J. (2021) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/00027162211028822 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Callaghan, B., Harouni, L., Dupree, C. H., Kraus, M. W., & Richeson, J. A. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2108875118 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Racialized Debts: Racial Exclusion From Credit Tools and Information Networks
Charron-Chénier, R., & Seamster, L. (2021) · Critical Sociology · doi:10.1177/0896920519894635 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationHarris, J. L. (2020) · Journal of Economics Race and Policy · doi:10.1007/s41996-020-00066-x · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Why Black and Latino Home Ownership Matter to the Color Line and Multiracial Democracy
Rugh, J. S. (2020) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-019-09275-y · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Racial Capitalism and the Black Student Loan Debt Crisis
Mustaffa, J. B., & Dawson, C. (2021) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146812112300601 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
A Pathway to Racial Equity: Student Debt Cancellation Policy Designs
Charron‐Chénier, R., Seamster, L., Shapiro, T. M., & Sullivan, L. (2021) · Social Currents · doi:10.1177/23294965211024671 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationDebt Stress, College Stress: Implications for Black and Latinx Students’ Mental Health
Deckard, F. M., Goosby, B. J., & Cheadle, J. E. (2021) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-021-09346-z · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Parents, Partners, and Professions: Reproduction and Mobility in a Cohort of College Women
Hamilton, L. T., & Armstrong, E. A. (2021) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/714850 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The policing of Black debt: how the municipal bond market regulates the right to water
Phinney, S. (2022) · Urban Geography · doi:10.1080/02723638.2022.2107257 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Goldstein, A., & Eaton, C. (2021) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/00031224211043223 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Routine Dilapidation: How Homeownership Creates Environmental Injustice
Bartram, R. (2023) · City and Community · doi:10.1177/15356841231172524 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Recent Advances in Algorithmic Biases and Fairness in Financial Services: A Survey
Bajracharya, A., Khakurel, U. B., Harvey, B., & Rawat, D. B. (2022) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-18461-1_53 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Digital Experiments with Landed Property: Robots, Race, and Rent
Fields, D. (2024) · Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie · doi:10.1111/tesg.12630 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Banks as Racialized and Gendered Organizations: Interviews with Frontline Workers
Friedline, T. L., Morrow, S., Oh, S., Klemm, T., & Kugiya, J. (2022) · Social Service Review · doi:10.1086/721145 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Laurison, D., Brown, H. E., & Rastogi, A. (2021) · Sociological Perspectives · doi:10.1177/07311214211059136 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Child support debt and the well‐being of disadvantaged fathers of color
Robbins, N. L., Waller, M. R., Nepomnyaschy, L., & Miller, D. P. (2022) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12841 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The Price of Access: Graduate Student Debt for Students of Color 2000 to 2016
Webber, K. L., & Burns, R. A. (2022) · The Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.1080/00221546.2022.2044976 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
A Crisis of Data? Transparency Practices and Infrastructures of Value in Data Broker Platforms
Zook, M., & Spangler, I. (2022) · Annals of the American Association of Geographers · doi:10.1080/24694452.2022.2071201 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Debt Collection Pressure and Mental Health: Evidence from a Cohort of U.S. Young Adults
Rhodes, A. P., Dwyer, R. E., & Houle, J. N. (2024) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/00221465241268477 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The Rising Importance of Stock-Linked Assets in the Black–White Wealth Gap
Lin, K.-H., & Domínguez, G. (2023) · Demography · doi:10.1215/00703370-11067778 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Rosenman, E. (2023) · Environment and Planning A Economy and Space · doi:10.1177/0308518x231212076 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Dreaming in Black : Middle‐class Blacks ' aspirational consumption
Claytor, C. P. (2021) · Journal of Consumer Affairs · doi:10.1111/joca.12361 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Black/white differences in the relationship between debt and risk of heart attack across cohorts
Hamil‐Luker, J., & O’Rand, A. M. (2023) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2023.101373 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Henricks, K., & Ortiz, R. (2022) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231221084774 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Friedline, T. L., Morrow, S., Atkinson, D., Gracey, A., Johnson, J., Muntaqim, A., Taylor, E. M., & Wolfe, A. (2023) · Du Bois Review Social Science Research on Race · doi:10.1017/s1742058x23000164 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Against the pedagogy of debt in South African higher education
Masutha, M. (2023) · African Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.21083/ajote.v12i2.7519 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Holding hope: Financial coaching and the depoliticisation of poverty
Loomis, J. (2022) · Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers · doi:10.1111/tran.12541 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Posey, P. D. (2023) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/00027162231219551 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
A Racialized Engine of Anxiety? Race, Reactivity, and the Uneven Tax of Credit Scores
Norris, D. (2025) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.1177/00018392251339638 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Priorities and challenges: Wealth management and financial planning among affluent Black families
Addo, F. R., & Beverly, K. (2022) · Financial Planning Review · doi:10.1002/cfp2.1148 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Addo, F. R., & Auguste, D. (2025) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-090324-022010 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Household Income by Nativity Status and Race/Ethnicity Across Metropolitan and Regional Contexts
Sparkman, R., & Tillman, K. H. (2024) · Population Research and Policy Review · doi:10.1007/s11113-023-09851-6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Charron‐Chénier, R. (2024) · Sociological Forum · doi:10.1111/socf.12987 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
A Race and Capitalism Framework to Study Financial Access
Posey, P. D. (2025) · Polity · doi:10.1086/738732 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Felix, E. R., Gándara, D., & Jones, S. M. (2024) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/01614681241247915 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Microcredit and the Financial Frontiers of Racial Neoliberalism
Gott, G. (2022) · Journal of Law and Political Economy · doi:10.5070/lp62258228 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Wealth, Race, and Under-Addressed Financial Need in Federal Student Aid Policy
Smith, C. M., Hamilton, L. T., & Eaton, C. (2025) · Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s11162-025-09851-9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Notably, however, debt can be misleading, as wealthier families, who are more likely to be white, often have access to strong credit and high amounts of what is coded as “good debt” (e.g., real estate, property, and vehicles) with favorable repayment terms (Killewald, 2013; Seamster, 2019).”
Algorithms for “hers”: in whose interests?
Skeggs, B. (2020) · Feminist Media Studies · doi:10.1080/14680777.2020.1783798 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Meehan, P., & Park, S. (2025) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-025-09468-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kim, I. (2024) · SN Business & Economics · doi:10.1007/s43546-024-00722-6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Portfolio ChannelingPreprint
Hu, B.-W. (2024) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/fx2tu · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Reintegration in the Red: Navigating Child Support Arrears After Prison
Spencer-Suarez, K. (2021) · doi:10.7916/d8-0ng4-0b97
The Pursuit of Happiness: A Calculation of the Hidden Costs of Being Black in the 21st Century
Rubalcaba, J. A.-A., & Smith, C. (2021) · The Review of Black political economy · doi:10.1177/00346446211055831
475,106 Mistakes: The Cost of Erroneous Parking TicketsPreprint
Henricks, K., Poulos, C. D., Arenas, I., Ortiz, R., & Lewis, A. E. (2022) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/ak3uc
Chicago’s Racial Wealth Gap: Legacies of the Past, Challenges in the Present, Uncertain FuturePreprint
Basaldua, F., Cuddy, M., Lewis, A. E., & Arenas, I. (2022) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/3qyts
Harris, C. I. (2022) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478023371-004
Indebted Adulthood in Queer Times
Verklan, E. (2022) · Feminist Review · doi:10.1177/01417789221135200
(2023) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478024613-004
(2023) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478024613-002
(2023) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478024613-011
(2023) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478024613-005
The Garden is a Weapon in the War
(2023) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478024613-008
(2023) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478024613-003
(2023) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478024613-006
Political Ecologies of Austerity
(2023) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478024613-007
(2023) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478024613-009
(2023) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478024613-010
(2023) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478024613-001
COVID relief as ‘dangerous money’ for Black business owners
Swartz, L., & Dzokoto, V. A. A. (2023) · Journal of Cultural Economy · doi:10.1080/17530350.2023.2189147
A Dream Defaulted: The Student Loan Crisis Among Black Borrowers
Bogia, M. L. (2023) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/1943-5045-93.4.586
Banking the Unbanked Spurs Payday Loan Usage among Black HouseholdsPreprint
Hu, B. (2024) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/mbx7f
Banking the Unbanked Spurs Payday Loan Usage among Black HouseholdsPreprint
Hu, B. (2024) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/mcew5
Banking for the Culture: Black-owned banks as cultural assets during the subprime lending boom
Bento, A. (2024) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2024.103025
Jeffrey, W., Smith, C., & Hamilton, L. T. (2026) · Sociology of Education · doi:10.1177/00380407261457391
Reyes, D. V., Quesada, M., & Garcia-Galvez, K. (2025) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231251371747
Ferman-Leon, D. (2026) · Transforming Anthropology · doi:10.1086/740954
Hellish Home Economics: Financializing the Cultural Politics of Care
(2026) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478062301-005
Life on an Installment Plan: Separate Development in Postapartheid South Africa
(2026) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478062301-001
(2026) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478062301-013
(2026) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478062301-012
Deserving and Undeserving Welfare States: Hegemonic Struggles Within the Ruling Party
(2026) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478062301-006
Sophia's Choice: A Western Cape Road Map of Debt
(2026) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478062301-004
Transferred Justice: Historic Debt and Future Repair
(2026) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478062301-008
Building Solidarity Through Debt
(2026) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478062301-009
Bantustan Banking: Dirt Roads and Superhighways
(2026) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478062301-003
Postal Banking: The Debilitating Effects of Public Infrastructure
(2026) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478062301-007
Surplus People Rebooted: Debt, Development, and Difference
(2026) · Duke University Press eBooks · doi:10.1215/9781478062301-002
The racial politics of student debt relief policy
Laws, S., & SoRelle, M. E. (2026) · Politics Groups and Identities · doi:10.1080/21565503.2026.2658793
- Authors
- Seamster, L.
- Corresponding author
- Seamster, Louise
- ORCID
- Seamster, Louise
- Venue
- Contexts
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2019-02
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 30-35
- ISSN
- 1536-5042 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-6052
- OpenAlex
- W2922201873
- Cited by
- 83
- References
- 5
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 6
- FWCI
- 9.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Contexts (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Finance › Housing, Finance, and Neoliberalism
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Accounting › Financial Literacy, Pension, Retirement Analysis
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Urban, Neighborhood, and Segregation Studies
- Keywords
- racial discrimination, debt, racial inequality, financial inequality, consumer credit, financial products, debt burden, access to credit
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review