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Suicide Prevention: State of the Art Review
Open accessAbstract
Suicide is a public health problem affecting people across the lifespan. It is currently the 10th leading cause of death, with rates having remained relatively flat for the past century. This article summarizes the problem of suicide and suicidal behavior along with suicide prevention efforts in the United States. Part 1 provides an overview of the epidemiology of suicide, including groups most at risk of suicide and suicidal behavior. Part 2 provides a review of common risk factors, organized by developmental life stage. A brief discussion of the lesser well-researched area of protective factors follows. Part 3 provides an overview of suicide prevention today, including the major types of prevention strategies, their successes, including means restriction, quality improvement in behavioral services, and comprehensive programs; and limitations to date, such as a lack of evidence for impact on actual deaths or behavior, small sample sizes, and low base rates. Finally, part 4 discusses challenges and future directions with an eye toward the great many opportunities that exist for prevention.
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“In 2017, there were approximately 10 times as many emergency department (ED) visits for nonfatal self-harm as there were suicides in the United States. 1”
From Trends in the Incidence and Lethality of Suicidal Acts in the United States, 2006 to 2015 (2020) · cites this paper as [1]
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Suicide prevention: an emerging priority for health care
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A Handbook for the Study of Mental Health
(2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289 · Cited by 43
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Factors associated with suicide in people who use drugs: a scoping review
Devin, J. E., Lyons, S., Murphy, L., O’Sullivan, M., & Lynn, E. C. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-05131-x · Cited by 34
Comportamento suicida e estratégias de prevenção sob a ótica de professores
Brito, M. D. L. D. S., Júnior, F. J. G. D. S., Costa, A. P. C., Sales, J. C. E. S., Gonçalves, A. M. D. S., & Monteiro, C. F. D. S. (2020) · Escola Anna Nery · doi:10.1590/2177-9465-ean-2020-0109 · Cited by 40
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Wheaton, B., & Montazer, S. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289.013 · Cited by 24
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Socioeconomic Stratification and Mental Disorder
Eaton, W. W., & Muntaner, C. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289.016 · Cited by 18
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Understanding the Connection between Social Support and Mental Health
Brown, R. L., & Ciciurkaite, G. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289.014 · Cited by 15
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Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289.024 · Cited by 11
Rosenfield, S., Kato, K., & Smith, D. T. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289.017 · Cited by 9
Horwitz, A. V. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289.004 · Cited by 8
Keith, V. M., & Brown, D. R. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289.019 · Cited by 9
Well-Being across the Life Course
Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289.021 · Cited by 8
Suicide Prevention Programming: Comparing Four Prominent Frameworks
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Promoting Protective Factors for Suicidal Behavior in Adolescents at Risk
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Suicide Literacy and Attitudes Toward Seeking Psychological Help among Medical Residents
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Automated detection and prediction of suicidal behavior from clinical notes using deep learning
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Attempted suicide: does lethality matter?
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“This is consistent with the well-documented suicide paradox: suicide attempt rates are higher among females, whereas lethality is higher among males (Stone & Crosby, 2014).”
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Work and Unemployment as Stressors
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Mental Health in Cross-Cultural Context
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“…on community settings instead of individual-led approaches, these strategies can offer additional reach for populations across the suicide risk spectrum and can complement other clinical interventions in multiple healthcare, education, or other social service environments (Stone & Crosby, 2014).”
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Effectiveness of early and intensive intervention on suicide prevention: CARS programme
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The Mental Health Consumers/Survivors Movement in the US
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Suicide Prevention: A Primer for Healthcare Professionals
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Theoretical Perspectives on Mental Health and Illness: Introduction to Part I
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The Social Context of Mental Health and Illness: Introduction to Part II
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Mental Health Systems and Policy: Introduction to Part III
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Biological Approaches to Psychiatric Disorders: A Sociological Approach
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Mechanic, D. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289.002
(2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316471289.035
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Geith, S., & Eyer, F. (2022) · Nervenheilkunde · doi:10.1055/a-1758-8133
Risk factors for completed suicide among people who use drugs: A scoping review protocol
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Hu, D., Comben, C., Diminic, S., & Pagliaro, C. (2023) · Australian Health Review · doi:10.1071/ah23176 · Cited by 1
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Waszak, P. M., & Olszańska, N. (2023) · Psychiatria i Psychologia Kliniczna · doi:10.15557/pipk.2023.0026
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Salimova, L., & Rusnáková, M. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4101710/v1 · Cited by 1
Collaborative Strategies for Adolescent Suicide Prevention: Insights from Slovakia and KyrgyzstanPreprint
Salimova, L., & Rusnáková, M. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4056895/v1
Additional file 4 of Factors associated with suicide in people who use drugs: a scoping review
Devin, J. E., Lyons, S., Murphy, L., O’Sullivan, M., & Lynn, E. C. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24091834
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Shoib, S., Handu, K., & Saeed, F. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-96-4028-7_20
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Demir, B. (2025) · Psikiyatride Guncel Yaklasimlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry · doi:10.18863/pgy.1676575 · Cited by 1
Additional file 1 of Factors associated with suicide in people who use drugs: a scoping review
Devin, J. E., Lyons, S., Murphy, L., O’Sullivan, M., & Lynn, E. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24091813
Geith, S., Didden, C., Rabe, C., Zellner, T., Ott, A., & Eyer, F. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19029447
Geith, S., Didden, C., Rabe, C., Zellner, T., Ott, A., & Eyer, F. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19029441
Additional file 2 of Factors associated with suicide in people who use drugs: a scoping review
Devin, J. E., Lyons, S., Murphy, L., O’Sullivan, M., & Lynn, E. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24091828
Additional file 3 of Factors associated with suicide in people who use drugs: a scoping review
Devin, J. E., Lyons, S., Murphy, L., O’Sullivan, M., & Lynn, E. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24091831
Geith, S., Didden, C., Rabe, C., Zellner, T., Ott, A., & Eyer, F. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19029444
Kolluru, S., Beidas, M., Foley, O. A., Tampi, R. R., & Tauseef, A. (2026) · International Journal of Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40345-025-00408-4
Metadata
- Authors
- Stone, D. M., & Crosby, A. E.
- Affiliations
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (US)
- ORCID
- Crosby, Alex E.
- Venue
- American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2014-10-16
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 404-420
- ISSN
- 1559-8276 (ISSN-L)
- 1559-8284
- PMC
- PMC6112615
- OpenAlex
- W2084578693
- Cited by
- 103
- References
- 194
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 39 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 16.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Lincoln (University of Nebraska) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (CC999999)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Homicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse
- Social Sciences › Health › Gun Ownership and Violence Research
- Keywords
- suicide prevention, suicide epidemiology, suicidal behavior, suicide risk factors, protective factors, means restriction, behavioral health services, suicide prevention strategies
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