The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 60 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Bayesian Versus Orthodox Statistics: Which Side Are You On?
Open accessAbstract
Researchers are often confused about what can be inferred from significance tests. One problem occurs when people apply Bayesian intuitions to significance testing—two approaches that must be firmly separated. This article presents some common situations in which the approaches come to different conclusions; you can see where your intuitions initially lie. The situations include multiple testing, deciding when to stop running participants, and when a theory was thought of relative to finding out results. The interpretation of nonsignificant results has also been persistently problematic in a way that Bayesian inference can clarify. The Bayesian and orthodox approaches are placed in the context of different notions of rationality, and I accuse myself and others as having been irrational in the way we have been using statistics on a key notion of rationality. The reader is shown how to apply Bayesian inference in practice, using free online software, to allow more coherent inferences from data.
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“In terms of statistics, a Bayesian approach might be more appropriate than Fisherian statistics [56] as the Fisher approach is not appropriate with limited data [48].”
From Agile science: creating useful products for behavior change in the real world (2016) · cites this paper as [56]
Citations
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Spatial Attention Does Not Modulate Holistic Face Processing, Even When Multiple Faces are Present
Norman, L. J., & Tokarev, A. (2014) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p7848 · Cited by 6
“Following the guide of Dienes (2011), we performed a Bayesian model comparison based on these parameters and calculated a Bayes factor of 0.346.”
MethodInfluentialLost in dissociation: The main paradigms in unconscious cognition.
Augusto, L. M. (2016) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2016.04.004 · Cited by 7
“This is related to the problem of differential test sensitivity that comes up mostly with objective thresholds and the zero-correlation criterion, but which can be a general issue, as discussed by Shanks and St. John (1994) (see Dienes, 2011, for a proposed solution).”
BackgroundIncreased productivity efforts yield few rewards in the knowledge economy
Nunes, A. (2016) · Transportation Research Part A Policy and Practice · doi:10.1016/j.tra.2016.09.025 · Cited by 6
No meditation-related changes in the auditory N1 during first-time meditation
Barnes, L., McArthur, G. M., Biedermann, B., de Lissa, P., Polito, V., & Badcock, N. A. (2018) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2018.03.003 · Cited by 6
“…to make conclusive statements about the null model, and a stopping rule which terminates testing when a statistically significant outcome is reached without biasing studies towards false positive findings (Rouder, 2014; see Dienes, 2011 for a comparison of orthodox and Bayesian methods).”
Myers, L. S., Downie, S., Taylor, G. J., Marrington, J. Z., Tehan, G., & Ireland, M. J. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00711 · Cited by 6
“The use of Bayesian statistics, and subsequent calculation of Bayes Factors (BF), assesses (a) evidence for the alternate hypothesis, (b) evidence for the null hypothesis and (c) no evidence for one over the other (Dienes, 2011), where the importance of experimental power is diminished.”
MethodBrown, C. R. H., Berggren, N., & Forster, S. (2019) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-019-01895-1 · Cited by 6
“A value closer to one suggests that any nonsignificant result is due to insensitivity and any difference or null effect is ‘anecdotal’ (Dienes, 2008, 2011, 2014, 2016; Jeffreys, 1961).”
Eye-closure & the retrieval of item-specific information in recognition memory
Parker, A., & Dagnall, N. (2019) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2019.102858 · Cited by 6
A dimensional summation account of polymorphous category learning
Wills, A. J., Ellett, L., Milton, F., Croft, G., & Beesley, T. (2020) · Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/s13420-020-00409-6 · Cited by 6
“Bayesian analysis was conducted following the procedure described by Dienes (2011), with priors as described below.”
MethodCan Researchers’ Personal Characteristics Shape Their Statistical Inferences?
Dunn, E. W., Chen, L., Proulx, J. D. E., Ehrlinger, J. M., & Savalei, V. (2020) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167220950522 · Cited by 7
“See Rouder et al. (2009) and Dienes (2011, 2014) for more thorough treatments.”
BackgroundContracts as reference points: A replication
Hippel, S., & Hoeppner, S. (2020) · International Review of Law and Economics · doi:10.1016/j.irle.2020.105973 · Cited by 6
Engelhardt, M., Komnenić, D., Roth, F., Kawelke, L., Finke, C., & Picht, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.627445 · Cited by 6
“While using these analyses with null hypothesis significance testing allows comparison with Rosso et al. (2017), it does not allow for rejection of the alternative hypothesis (Dienes 2011; 2014).”
BackgroundMethodThe Use and Misuse of Classical Statistics: A Primer for Social Workers
Dunleavy, D. J., & Lacasse, J. R. (2021) · Research on Social Work Practice · doi:10.1177/10497315211008247 · Cited by 6
“Despite this, it is not uncommon for researchers to give frequentist concepts and Bayesian interpretations (e.g., Dienes, 2011), a point Bayesian proponents commonly cite in their favor.”
BackgroundValidation of the International Reading Speed Texts in a Sample of Older (60+) Canadian Adults
Morrice, E., Soldano, V., Addona, C., Murphy, C. E., & Johnson, A. P. (2021) · Optometry and Vision Science · doi:10.1097/opx.0000000000001746 · Cited by 6
High Schizotypy Predicts Emotion Recognition Independently of Negative Affect
Dawes, C., Danielmeier, C., Haselgrove, M., & Moran, P. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.738344 · Cited by 8
Trials and tribulations of statistical significance in biochemistry and omics
Montero, O., Hedeland, M., & Balgoma, D. (2023) · Trends in Biochemical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2023.01.009 · Cited by 7
Changing-state irrelevant speech disrupts visual–verbal but not visual–spatial serial recall.
Marsh, J. E., Hurlstone, M. J., Marois, A., Ball, L. J., Moore, S. B., Vachon, F., Schlittmeier, S. J., Röer, J. P., Buchner, A., Aust, F., et al. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0001360 · Cited by 11
Not that neglected! Base rates influence related and unrelated judgments
Białek, M. (2017) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.04.003 · Cited by 7
Learning to be in control involves response-specific mechanisms
Ruitenberg, M. F. L., Braem, S., Cheyne, H. D., & Notebaert, W. (2019) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-019-01753-0 · Cited by 6
“In contrast, a BF10 smaller than 0.33 reflects moderate evidence for the null hypothesis (with BF10<0.1 being strong evidence), and a BF10 between 1 and 0.33 reflects anecdotal evidence for the null hypothesis (Dienes, 2011; Nuzzo, 2017).”
InfluentialA note on replication analysis
Hoeppner, S. (2019) · International Review of Law and Economics · doi:10.1016/j.irle.2019.05.004 · Cited by 6
Editorial: Methodology in judgment and decision making research
Glöckner, A., & Hilbig, B. E. (2011) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500004137 · Cited by 6
“cific practices of data collection and questionable standards in data analysis (Dienes, 2011; Simmons, Nelson, & Simonsohn, in press; Wagenmakers, 2007; Wagenmakers, Wetzels, Borsboom, & van der Maas, 2011; Wetzels, et al., 2011), to name but a few examples.”
BackgroundHorváth, K., Török, C., Pesthy, O., Németh, D., & Janacsek, K. (2018) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/433243 · Cited by 7
Guo, Z., Han, X., Kong, T., Wu, Y., Kang, Y., Liu, Y., & Wang, F. (2025) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-024-06415-6 · Cited by 6
Civile, C., McCourt, S., & McLaren, R. (2024) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5406/19398298.137.3.02 · Cited by 5
Do infants expect physically competent agents to gain access to contested resources?
Meng, X., Chijiiwa, H., & Kanakogi, Y. (2025) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2025.102090 · Cited by 5
Are current etiological theories of Alzheimer’s disease falsifiable? An epistemological assessment
Costa, T., & Liloia, D. (2025) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2025.1708234 · Cited by 5
“…a process of data-driven elimination, wherein the primary objective of experimentation is not to refute a theory in absolute terms, but rather to foster progress through the gradual exclusion of alternative hypotheses that are less compatible with the observed facts (Jaynes, 2003; Dienes, 2011).”
InfluentialCross-hemispheric recruitment during action planning with increasing task demand
Schach, S., Braun, D. A., & Lindner, A. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-41926-4 · Cited by 5
“We additionally calculated Bayes factors (BFs) for every ROI on the acquired beta-estimates according to Dienes 75 .”
MethodTafro, A., Koletić, G., Milas, G., & Štulhofer, A. (2024) · International Journal of Sexual Health · doi:10.1080/19317611.2024.2308822 · Cited by 6
“The Bayesian approach to statistical analysis allows the researcher to incorporate expert knowledge or results of previous studies, in contrast with the classical approach which only relies on the results of a single study (Dienes, 2011).”
BackgroundMethodKeys, R. T., Rich, A. N., & Zopf, R. (2018) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-018-5232-4 · Cited by 6
“A B > 1 indicates that the data support the experimental hypothesis, whereas a B 1 indicates that the data support the null hypothesis (Dienes 2011, 2014).”
ResultExplaining choice quality with decision style, cognitive reflection and decision environment
Pajala, T. (2019) · Journal of the Operational Research Society · doi:10.1080/01605682.2018.1495994 · Cited by 5
Local geometric properties do not support reorientation in hippocampus-engaged homing pigeons.
Sotelo, M. I., Nardi, D., Payne, K. B., Coppola, V. J., Muzio, R. N., & Bingman, V. P. (2019) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/bne0000298 · Cited by 5
A Simple Method for Teaching Bayesian Hypothesis Testing in the Brain and Behavioral Sciences.
Faulkenberry, T. J. (2018) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 5
Klimova, A., & Чмель, К. Ш. (2019) · Monitoring obŝestvennogo mneniâ: èkonomičeskie i socialʹnye peremeny · doi:10.14515/monitoring.2020.1.07 · Cited by 5
Avital-Cohen, R., & Gronau, N. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/xhp0000921 · Cited by 5
Effect of a context shift on the inverse base-rate effect
Inkster, A. B., Mitchell, C. J., Schlegelmilch, R., & Wills, A. J. (2022) · doi:10.46221/ojepn.2022.0404 · Cited by 5
Linde, M., & van Ravenzwaaij, D. (2023) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-023-02097-y · Cited by 7
Concentration toward the mode: Estimating changes in the shape of a distribution of student data
Motz, B. A. (2024) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2024.101364 · Cited by 8
Rapid visual engagement in neural processing of detailed touch interactions
Smit, S., Ramírez-Haro, A., Quek, G. L., Varlet, M., Moerel, D., & Grootswagers, T. (2025) · Imaging Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/imag.a.1017 · Cited by 4
Negative priming in free recall reconsidered.
Hanczakowski, M., Beaman, C. P., & Jones, D. M. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000192 · Cited by 5
“…2 results to represent the mean and standard deviation of the distributions of the prior, and updating these using the mean and standard error of the current Experiment 4 as the corresponding likelihood values in order to obtain the posterior mean and standard error (see Dienes, 2008, 2011).”
MethodBeyond p-values in the evaluation of brain-computer interfaces: A Bayesian estimation approach.
Melinščak, F., & Montesano, L. (2016) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2016.06.008 · Cited by 7
The PANAS-C: A cross-cultural examination among South African adolescents
Guse, T., & van Zyl, C. J. J. (2018) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-018-9965-9 · Cited by 5
Wilde, M. D., Casini, A., Bernard, P., Wollast, R., Klein, O., & Demoulin, S. (2020) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797619896273 · Cited by 5
Passion meets procrastination: comparative study of negative sales associate behaviours
Jones, R. P. (2020) · International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management · doi:10.1108/ijrdm-06-2019-0200 · Cited by 6
Assessing optimal colour and illumination to facilitate reading
Morrice, E., Murphy, C. E., Soldano, V., Addona, C., Wittich, W., & Johnson, A. P. (2021) · Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics · doi:10.1111/opo.12785 · Cited by 5
“Analyses were computed using traditional null hypothesis significance testing and Bayes factors.(71,72) Statistics were computed using JASP 0.”
Rodway, P., & Schepman, A. (2022) · Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1080/1357650x.2022.2090573 · Cited by 5
“To provide additional inferencing in a different ASYMMETRIES OF BRAIN, BEHAVIOUR, AND COGNITION 421 tradition we also report Bayesian Statistics (see e.g., Dienes, 2011).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSustained neural representations of personally familiar people and places during cued recall
Corriveau, A., Kidder, A., Teichmann, L., Wardle, S. G., & Baker, C. I. (2022) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2022.08.014 · Cited by 5
Lionetti, F., Calcagnì, A., D’Urso, G., Spinelli, M., Fasolo, M., Pluess, M., & Pastore, M. (2024) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.14000 · Cited by 5
Domain general frontoparietal regions show modality-dependent coding of auditory and visual rules
Jackson, J. B., Rich, A. N., Moerel, D., Teichmann, L., Duncan, J., & Woolgar, A. (2025) · Imaging Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/imag.a.29 · Cited by 4
“We used Bayesian statistics ( Dienes, 2011; Kass & Raftery, 1995; Morey et al., 2016; Rouder et al., 2009) to determine the evidence for above-chance decoding (alternative hypothesis) and chance decoding (null hypothesis) for each classification scheme and ROI using the Bayes Factor (BF) R package…”
van der Plas, M., Wang, D., Brittain, J., & Hanslmayr, S. (2020) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2020.09.006 · Cited by 5
“With this fact in mind 393 it is important to encourage the reporting of the Bayes Factor, since Bayesian analyses do not 394 share this property of inflated significance with increased sample sizes (Dienes, 2011; Biel, and 395 Friedrich. 2018).”
BackgroundKöteles, F. G., Szemerszky, R., Witthöft, M., & Nordin, S. (2020) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2020.1841761 · Cited by 5
“As the widely used significance-based (aka frequentist) approach to hypothesis testing recently has received considerable criticism (Dienes, 2011; Kline, 2013; Wagenmakers, 2007), hypotheses of the current study were tested using both frequentist and Bayesian multiple linear regression analyses.”
MethodOrtega, A., Labrenz, S., Markowitsch, H. J., & Piefke, M. (2013) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2013.806677 · Cited by 5
“General information about Bayesian inference can be found in O’Hagan and Forster (2004), Lee and Wagenmakers (2010), and Dienes (2011).”
BackgroundWeidemann, G., McAndrew, A., Livesey, E. J., & McLaren, I. P. L. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Learning and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xan0000117 · Cited by 5
“…about the linear trends observed in the Easy condition relative to the Hard, we intend to place some theoretical significance on the absence of a difference in the linear trends in the two groups, an aim that is not well-supported by classical null-hypothesis testing alone (Dienes, 2011).”
ResultVisual adaptation enhances action sound discrimination
Barraclough, N. E., Page, S. A., & Keefe, B. D. (2016) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-016-1199-z · Cited by 5
“In addition to post hoc t tests to evaluate significant differences between the unimodal and multimodal adaptors, we used Bayesian t tests (Dienes, 2008, 2011) to quantify the evidence in favor for or against a beneficial influence of having multimodal adaptation over unimodal adaptation.”
Ioumpa, K., Graham, S. A., Clausner, T., Fisher, S. E., van Lier, R., & van Leeuwen, T. M. (2019) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0395 · Cited by 6
Can I confidently guess who you are? Personality and intelligence perception in online dating
von Andrian-Werburg, M. T. P., Adler, D. C., Schwab, F., Schwarz, S., & Lange, B. P. (2020) · Studies in Communication and Media · doi:10.5771/2192-4007-2020-4-573 · Cited by 5
“…(1) the number of tested hypotheses in a Bayesian analysis is neglectable as long as the data is relevant for the hypotheses and research questions (Dienes, 2011), (2) a Bayesian approach also allows to reasonably assess null hypotheses (Dienes, 2014) and (3) it is possible to use empirically…”
BackgroundTraining response inhibition to reduce food consumption
Adams, R. C. (2014) · ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) · Cited by 5
Untangling featural and conceptual object representationsPreprint
Grootswagers, T., Robinson, A. K., Shatek, S. M., & Carlson, T. A. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/607499 · Cited by 5
“For each decoding analysis, we used Bayesian statistics to determine the evidence for above chance decoding or non-zero differences between texform and intact object decoding accuracies (Dienes, 2011, 2016; Jeffreys, 1961; Rouder, Speckman, Sun, Morey, & Iverson, 2009; Wagenmakers, 2007).”
Sarma, A., & Kay, M. (2020) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/fcmun · Cited by 6
Global Functional Connectivity is Associated with Mind Wandering Domain of Comfort
Tarailis, P., Šimkutė, D., & Griškova-Bulanova, I. (2024) · Brain Topography · doi:10.1007/s10548-024-01042-6 · Cited by 4
“We employed Bayesian interference, where the predictive updating factor - Bayes factor (BF) - measures the change in relative beliefs about the alternative hypothesis relative to the null hypothesis(Kelter 2020) and does not require correction for multiple comparisons (Dienes 2011, 2014, 2016).”
Markovitch, B., Kamps, J. C. C., Markopoulos, P., & Birk, M. V. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2025.108720 · Cited by 5
Infrequent faces bias social attention differently in manual and oculomotor measures
Pereira, E. J., Birmingham, E., & Ristic, J. (2022) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-021-02432-9 · Cited by 5
“If no evidence of attentional biasing was found (i.e., if no effects or interactions between the two key factors were significant), Bayesian analyses were used to assess the relative strength of those findings (Dienes, 2011; Leppink et al., 2017)2.”
MethodCivile, C., Waguri, E., & McLaren, I. P. L. (2023) · Perception · doi:10.1177/03010066231215909 · Cited by 4
“Finally, we conducted Bayes factor analyses using the procedure outlined by Dienes (2011), assuming a one-tailed distribution for our theory and a mean of 0.”
MethodTalbot, J., Gatti, D., Boccalari, M., Marchetti, M., Mitaritonna, D., Convertino, G., Stockner, M., & Mazzoni, G. (2024) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2024.2351576 · Cited by 3
“BFs > 3 are generally taken as indicative of substantial support in favour of the null hypothesis (e.g., Dienes, 2011).”
Bayesian Tools of the Trade for Developmental Psychologists: A Quick-Start Guide Using JASP
Coon, J., Silva, P. N., Etz, A. J., & Sarnecka, B. W. (2024) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248372.2024.2386032 · Cited by 6
Categorically distinct subsets allow flexible memory selection in hybrid search.
Gronau, N., Nartker, M. S., Yakim, S., Utochkin, I., & Wolfe, J. M. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0001377 · Cited by 4
A Journey Through Philosophy and Medicine: From Aristotle to Evidence-Based Decisions
de Alencar, J. N., de Oliveira, M. L. B., Sampaio, M. C. D. R., Rêgo, F. M. P. D. S., & Nunes, R. (2024) · Philosophies · doi:10.3390/philosophies9060189 · Cited by 7
Volition as a modulator of the intergroup empathy bias
Caspar, É. A., Nicolay, E., Banderembaho, F., & Pech, G. P. (2024) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2024.2446816 · Cited by 4
“Data were analyzed with both frequentist and Bayesian statistics (Dienes, 2011).”
Neural decoding of competitive decision-making in Rock–Paper–Scissors
Moerel, D., Grootswagers, T., Chin, J. L. L., Ciardo, F., Nijhuis, P., Quek, G. L., Smit, S., & Varlet, M. (2025) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsaf101 · Cited by 4
Risk as an Explanatory Factor for Researchers’ Inferential Interpretations
Hoekstra, R. (2015) · The Mathematics Enthusiast · doi:10.54870/1551-3440.1338 · Cited by 4
“This ratio of likelihoods is called the Bayes Factor (Dienes, 2011).”
MethodAn empirical analysis of the methodology of automatic imitation research in a strategic context.
Aczél, B., Kekecs, Z., Bagó, B., Szollosi, A., & Foldes, A. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/xhp0000081 · Cited by 5
On the Antecedents of an Electrophysiological Signature of Retrieval Mode
Williams, A. N., Evans, L. H., Herron, J. E., & Wilding, E. L. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0167574 · Cited by 4
Spontaneous eyeblinks are sensitive to sequential learning
Anton, E. S., Axel Cleeremans, B., Destrebecqz, A., Peigneux, P., & Schmitz, R. (2018) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.09.007 · Cited by 5
“In the following, we will only report (see Figure 5) and discuss robust correlations justified by substantial Bayes factors (i.e., BF10 > 3; see Dienes, 2011).”
MethodDoes direction matter? Linguistic asymmetries reflected in visual attention
Kluth, T., Burigo, M., Schultheis, H., & Knoeferle, P. (2019) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2018.09.006 · Cited by 4
“…is growing consensus that the classical Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST) framework focusing on the significance of an effect given a corresponding p < 0.05 has severe flaws (e.g., Dienes, 2011; Gigerenzer, 2004; Kruschke, 2013; Lindley, 1993; Wagenmakers, 2007; Wagenmakers et al., 2018).”
InfluentialPacios, J., Montalbán, J. M. C., del Río, D., & Maestú, F. (2020) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2020.1839382 · Cited by 5
“Notwithstanding, the question of whether positive and neutral stimuli have equivalent e ff ects in WM, i.e. concluding that there is no di ff erence between responses to both types of stimuli, is di ffi cult to address from the Null Hypothesis Signi fi cance Tests (NHST) paradigm (Dienes, 2011, 2014).”
BackgroundPreserved intention understanding during moral judgments in schizophrenia
Kronbichler, L., Stelzig-Schöler, R., Lenger, M., Weber, S., Pearce, B.-G., Reich, L. A., Aichhorn, W., & Kronbichler, M. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0251180 · Cited by 5
Theory protection: Do humans protect existing associative links?
Spicer, S. G., Mitchell, C. J., Wills, A. J., Blake, K. L., & Jones, P. M. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Learning and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xan0000314 · Cited by 4
“Bayesian t-tests were also conducted, using the procedure recommended by Dienes (2011) and implemented as R code by Baguley and Kaye (2010).”
InfluentialUngsitipoonporn, S., Simard, C., & Sallabank, J. (2022) · South East Asia Research · doi:10.1080/0967828x.2022.2038019 · Cited by 4
“This type of analysis is more intuitive than traditional methods of null hypothesis significance testing (Dienes 2011).”
MethodThe Role of Honor Concerns in Disclosing (vs. Hiding) COVID-19 Diagnosis: Insights from Türkiye
Batur, S. C., Doğulu, C., Akbaş, G., Yet, B., & Üskül, A. K. (2023) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-023-01373-x · Cited by 4
Sequential syntactic knowledge supports item but not order recall in verbal working memory
Querella, P., & Majerus, S. (2023) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-023-01476-6 · Cited by 4
“In contrast to frequentist statistical frameworks, inference taken from obtained data is also independent of the data collection plan (Berger & Wolpert, 1988; Dienes, 2011; Wagenmakers et al., 2018).”
Kato, T. (2018) · The Japanese Journal of Personality · doi:10.2132/personality.27.2.11 · Cited by 6
Changing emotional visual and auditory memories: are modality-matched dual-tasks more effective?
Mertens, G., Bouwman, V., Asmervik, J. F., & Engelhard, I. M. (2019) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2019.1666800 · Cited by 5
“Thus, Bayesian analysis provides an efficient way to evaluate our hypotheses on the basis of the combined data of both experiments (Dienes, 2011; Krypotos, Blanken, Arnaudova, Matzke, & Beckers, 2017).”
MethodWhen the camera does lie: Selfies are dishonest indicators of dominance.
Gale, A., & Lewis, M. B. (2019) · Psychology of Popular Media · doi:10.1037/ppm0000260 · Cited by 4
“Gender was non-significant, F(1,73) = 0.552, p = 1 BF10 refers to the Bayes factor defining the likelihood ratio for hypothesis relative to the null hypothesis (Dienes, 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe effect of vocal tract parameters on aspiration noise discrimination
Labuschagne, I. B., & Ciocca, V. (2020) · The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/10.0000756 · Cited by 4
Input effects in the acquisition of verb inflection: Evidence from Emirati Arabic
Szreder, M., Ruiter, L. E. D., & Ntelitheos, D. (2021) · Journal of Child Language · doi:10.1017/s0305000921000155 · Cited by 4
“A challenge with the NHST approach is that non-significant results cannot be interpreted (see e.g., Dienes, 2011, 2014); the results cannot tell whether there is indeed no effect, or whether there is simply not enough data.”
BackgroundNeither State or Trait Anxiety Alter the Response to Distracting Emotionally Neutral Sounds
Hoskin, R., Hunter, M. D., & Woodruff, P. W. R. (2014) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000268 · Cited by 4
Parker, A., & Dagnall, N. (2018) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2018.1495236 · Cited by 6
Null hypothesis significance testing in simulation
Hofmann, M. A. (2016) · Winter Simulation Conference · doi:10.1109/wsc.2016.7822118 · Cited by 4
“(c) On the one hand, Bayesian inferential statistics can avoid many of the disadvantages of NHST (Dienes 2011; Dienes 2014; Rouder 2014; Wagenmakers et al. 2015).”
BackgroundTurtles all the way down? Psychometric approaches to the reduction problem
Kievit, R. (2014) · UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) · Cited by 3
Pownall, M., Pennington, C. R., Norris, E., Juanchich, M., Smailes, D., Russell, P. S., Gooch, D., Evans, T. R., Persson, S., Mak, M. H., et al. (2023) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/xg2ah · Cited by 3
Poisson regression for linguists: A tutorial introduction to modeling count data with brmsPreprint
Winter, B., & Bürkner, P. (2021) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/93kaf · Cited by 4
A Tutorial on Conducting and Interpreting a Bayesian Independent T ‐Test Using Open‐Source Software
Malone, H., & Coyne, I. (2025) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.70122 · Cited by 3
“Bayesian inference, therefore, provides a more direct way of testing a hypothesis (Cohen 1994; Dienes 2011; Wagenmakers, Marsman, et al. 2018).”
InfluentialReynolds, J. J., & Bürkner, P. (2020) · Homicide Studies · doi:10.1177/1088767920976191 · Cited by 3
“On the other hand, Bayesian multilevel multinomial regression does not have these disadvantages and also confers several advantages (see Dienes, 2011; Kruschke & Liddell, 2018).”
BackgroundTomkins, B. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111438 · Cited by 3
Fisk, G. D., & Haase, S. J. (2023) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941231191066 · Cited by 3
“Recently, there has been an increasing appreciation of frequentist test weaknesses (Dienes, 2011; van Zyl, 2018; Wagenmakers, 2007) that may have important methodology implications.”
Neural correlates reveal separate stages of spontaneous face perception
Robinson, A. K., Stuart, G., Shatek, S. M., Herbert, A., & Taubert, J. (2025) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00308-4 · Cited by 4
Bateman, S., Vine, S. J., Arthur, T., & Harris, D. (2025) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-025-01217-x · Cited by 3
“Additionally, they provide intuitive outputs, akin to the way Bayesian statistics provides more interpretable results than traditional null hypothesis testing (Dienes 2011 ).”
Biofibre explorer: An augmented reality (AR) tool to promote circularity through material knowledge
O’Nascimento, R., Petreca, B. B., Morrow, R., Dawes, C., Ribul, M., Rahatekar, S. S., & Baurley, S. L. (2026) · Sustainable Futures · doi:10.1016/j.sftr.2026.101648 · Cited by 3
Teichmann, L., Nieuwenstein, M. R., & Rich, A. N. (2015) · Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17588928.2015.1056519 · Cited by 3
“evidence for the null or alternative hypothesis (Dienes, 2011) for”
BackgroundCan US sensitization account for the electrodermal variant of the Perruchet effect
McAndrew, A., Weidemann, G., & McLaren, I. P. L. (2013) · Figshare · Cited by 3
Generating Artificial Social Networks
Johansson, T. (2019) · The Quantitative Methods for Psychology · doi:10.20982/tqmp.15.2.p056 · Cited by 4
“The ratio of two marginal model likelihoods is the Bayes Factor and denotes the factor by which the data support one model over the other (Dienes, 2011).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBüttner, F., Howell, D. R., Doherty, C., Blake, C. M., Ryan, J. M., & Delahunt, E. (2021) · Physical Therapy in Sport · doi:10.1016/j.ptsp.2021.06.011 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Dienes, Z.
- Affiliations
- University of Sussex (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Dienes, Zoltan
- ORCID
- Dienes, Zoltan
- Venue
- Perspectives on Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2011-05
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 274-290
- ISSN
- 1745-6916 (ISSN-L)
- 1745-6924
- OpenAlex
- W2055754299
- Cited by
- 938
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 64 · 2021: 99 · 2020: 87 · 2019: 84 · 2018: 98 · 2017: 82 · 2016: 76 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 48 · 2013: 42 · 2012: 33
- FWCI
- 6.30
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- figshare.com
- Locations
- Perspectives on Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Probability and Statistical Research
- Keywords
- Bayesian inference, significance testing, null hypothesis significance testing, multiple comparisons, stopping rules
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