Cited by 938Statistical Methods and Bayesian InferenceMeta-analysis and systematic reviewsProbability and Statistical Research

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 59 of the 60 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Bayesian Versus Orthodox Statistics: Which Side Are You On?

Open access

Dienes, Zoltan·2011·Perspectives on Psychological Science

DOI 10.1177/1745691611406920

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Researchers are often confused about what can be inferred from significance tests. One problem occurs when people apply Bayesian intuitions to significance testing—two approaches that must be firmly separated. This article presents some common situations in which the approaches come to different conclusions; you can see where your intuitions initially lie. The situations include multiple testing, deciding when to stop running participants, and when a theory was thought of relative to finding out results. The interpretation of nonsignificant results has also been persistently problematic in a way that Bayesian inference can clarify. The Bayesian and orthodox approaches are placed in the context of different notions of rationality, and I accuse myself and others as having been irrational in the way we have been using statistics on a key notion of rationality. The reader is shown how to apply Bayesian inference in practice, using free online software, to allow more coherent inferences from data.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/1745691611406920

Cites

59 of 59 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Probability theory the logic of science
Jaynes, E. T., & Bretthorst, G. L. (2003) · Cited by 4,600
Probability Theory: The Logic of Science
Jaynes, E. T. (2003) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511790423 · Cited by 4,045
Bayesian t tests for accepting and rejecting the null hypothesis
Rouder, J. N., Speckman, P. L., Sun, D., Morey, R. D., & Iverson, G. (2009) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/pbr.16.2.225 · Cited by 3,688 · cited 3×
“For a p value, if the null is true, any value in the interval 0 to 1 is equally likely no matter how much data you collect (Rouder et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethod
Conjectures and Refutations
Vannieuwenhoven, N. (2020) · McGill-Queen's University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctvw1d7dg.9 · Cited by 3,370
The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Philosophical Papers
Lakatos, I. (1978) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511621123 · Cited by 3,045
CONJECTURES AND REFUTATIONS
Alexander, P. F. (1963) · Philosophical Books · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0149.1963.tb00798.x · Cited by 2,859
Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action.
Bargh, J. A., Chen, M., & Burrows, L. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.2.230 · Cited by 2,736
Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action.
Bargh, J. A., Chen, M. I.-C., & Burrows, L. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.71.2.230 · Cited by 2,646
A practical solution to the pervasive problems ofp values
Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2007) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03194105 · Cited by 2,490 · cited 1×
“For this reason, sooner or later, you are guaranteed to get a significant result if you run subjects long enough and stop when you get the p value you want (e.g., Wagenmakers, 2007).”
Background
HARKing: Hypothesizing after the results are known
Kerr, N. L. (1998) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0203_4 · Cited by 1,989

Show all 60 references

Research works printed but not linked: 2

Blume J. D., Handbook of the philosophy of statistics
Jeffreys H., 1961, The theory of probability

Sorted by citations

Items 701–800 of 938

Rotation-tolerant representations elucidate the time-course of high-level object processing
Moerel, D., Grootswagers, T., Robinson, A. K., Engeler, P., Holcombe, A. O., & Carlson, T. A. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0347992 · Cited by 3
“We used Bayesian statistics [39–43] to determine whether decoding accuracies were at chance level, or instead substantially higher.”
Implicit and explicit learning of socio-emotional information are not related to the level of depressive symptomatology
Jurchiș, R., Costea, A. R., & Opre, A. N. (2023) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-023-10022-5 · Cited by 3
Refining Bayesian hierarchical MPT modeling: Integrating prior knowledge and ordinal expectations
Sarafoglou, A., Kuhlmann, B. G., Aust, F., & Haaf, J. M. (2024) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-024-02370-y · Cited by 3
“…when researchers work with quantitatively instantiated theories – which MPT models undoubtedly are – prior distributions along with model equations, are an opportunity to fully describe all aspects captured by theory (e.g., Dienes, 2011; Rouder et al., 2016; Vanpaemel, 2010; Vanpaemel & Lee, 2012).”
Background
Bayes factors for two-group comparisons in Cox regression with an application for reverse-engineering raw data from summary statistics
Linde, M., Tendeiro, J. N., & van Ravenzwaaij, D. (2025) · Journal of Applied Statistics · doi:10.1080/02664763.2025.2472150 · Cited by 3
“The use of NHST in biomedical research is ubiquitous [16] even though it has been criticized repeatedly (e.g.[ 8,9,21,26,31,33–35, 56 , 73, 76– 78 ]).”
Pojęcie wielkości efektu na tle teorii Neymana-Pearsona testowania hipotez statystycznych
Szymczak, W. (2015) · Acta Universitatis Lodziensis Folia Psychologica · doi:10.18778/1427-969x.19.01 · Cited by 3
Bayes factor benefits for clinical psychology: review of child and adolescent evidence base
Bertelsen, T. B., Hoffart, A., Rekdal, S. S., & Zahl‐Olsen, R. (2022) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.76842.2 · Cited by 3
Experimental Evaluation of the AIRWOLF Weather Advisory Tool for En Route Air Traffic Controllers
Ahlstrom, U. (2015) · Aviation Psychology and Applied Human Factors · doi:10.1027/2192-0923/a000070 · Cited by 4
“many situations the p values are calculated using the wrong sampling distribution (Dienes, 2011).”
Method
Investigating the parameters of transsaccadic memory: inhibition of return impedes information acquisition near a saccade target
Schut, M. J., Fabius, J. H., & der Stigchel, S. V. (2016) · Visual Cognition · doi:10.1080/13506285.2016.1206050 · Cited by 3
“We choose a Bayesian approach since it allowed us to further examine whether the null hypothesis (i.e., crowding does not affect accuracy on the transsaccadic memory paradigm) was rightly rejected or that our test was inconclusive (Dienes, 2011).”
Background
Disentangling the effects of attentional weighting and associative mediation in perceptual learning reveals no evidence for associative mediation.
George, D. N., & Oltean, B. P. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000773 · Cited by 3
“Values close to 1 provide no clear support in either direction, those above 3 provide substantial support for the experimental hypothesis, and those below 1/3 provide substantial support for the null hypothesis (Jeffreys, 1961; Dienes, 2011).”
Result
Acquiring Sustainability Information in Holiday Travel
Schmücker, D. J., Kuhn, F., & Horster, E. (2020) · Tourism on the verge · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-49709-5_11 · Cited by 3
Working memory complex span tasks and fluid intelligence: Does the positional structure of the task matter?
Debraise, M., Gauvrit, N., & Mathy, F. (2020) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-020-01811-x · Cited by 3
Does Motor Memory Reactivation through Practice and Post-Learning Sleep Modulate Consolidation?
Stee, W., & Peigneux, P. (2023) · Clocks & Sleep · doi:10.3390/clockssleep5010008 · Cited by 4
“33 < BF < 3 are deemed inconclusive [75].”
Background
Preprint GlautierAndBrudan2018 Stable Individual Differences in Occasion SettingPreprint
Glautier, S., & Brudan, O. (2018) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/trwbq · Cited by 3
Priors in a Bayesian Audit: How Integration of Existing Information into the Prior Distribution Can Improve Audit Transparency and EfficiencyPreprint
Derks, K., de swart, J., Batenburg, P. C. V., Wagenmakers, E., & Wetzels, R. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/8fhkp · Cited by 3
Bayesian frequentists: Examining the paradox between what researchers can conclude versus what they want to conclude from statistical resultsPreprint
Haucke, M. N., Miosga, J., Hoekstra, R., & van Ravenzwaaij, D. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/escvy · Cited by 3
Introduction Matters: Manipulating Trust in Automation and Reliance in Automated DrivingPreprint
Körber, M., Baseler, E., & Bengler, K. J. (2017) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/q6uak · Cited by 3
A tutorial on analyzing ecological momentary assessment data in psychological research with Bayesian (generalized) mixed-effects modelsPreprint
Dora, J., McCabe, C. J., Lissa, C. J. V., Witkiewitz, K. A., & King, K. M. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/jc938 · Cited by 3
Backchannels in conversations between autistic adults are less frequent and less diverse prosodically and lexicallyPreprint
Wehrle, S., Vogeley, K. T., & Grice, M. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/tbr3c · Cited by 3
The Representation of Stimulus Features during Stable Fixation and Active Vision
Moran, C., Johnson, P. A., Hogendoorn, H., & Landau, A. N. (2025) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1652-24.2024 · Cited by 2
“BFs >1 indicate that there is more evidence for the alternative hypothesis than the null hypothesis (Dienes, 2011) with a BF >3 considered as “ substantial ” evidence for the alternative hypothesis, i.e., decoding above-chance level.”
Expectation dynamically modulates the representational time course of objects and locations
Moore, M. J., Robinson, A. K., & Mattingley, J. B. (2025) · Imaging Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/imag.a.999 · Cited by 3
A randomized controlled trial study of a life review art intervention for older adults living alone
Tsai, P., Chou, W.-H., & Liao, S.-Y. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1669119 · Cited by 4
“While the frequentist approach provides a p -value indicating the probability of the data under the null hypothesis (H₀), it cannot quantify evidence for H₀ or directly state the probability of the hypotheses themselves (Dienes, 2011).”
Transcranial direct current stimulation eliminates the own-age bias as indexed by the face inversion effect for own- versus other-age faces
Civile, C., & Wang, G. (2026) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsag001 · Cited by 3
On the sensitivity of event-related potentials to retrieval mode
Williams, A. N., & Wilding, E. L. (2019) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2019.103580 · Cited by 2
“The final sample size employed was guided via the Bayesian Stopping Rule (Dienes, 2011) which was applied to the Bayesian analyses with a first look conducted at 24 participants, and in this case data collection was terminated at the pre-determined maximum of 32 (cf. Campbell, Chambers, Allen,…”
Influential
Bayesian Inference: Understanding Experimental Data With Informative Hypotheses
Baig, S. A. (2020) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntaa120 · Cited by 2
Tell me all about it: Narrated memories are less emotional than imagined memories
Andrade, J., IJdema, T., Vadasz, N., & May, J. (2022) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218221126720 · Cited by 2
“An advantage of a Bayesian approach is that it allows combining of evidence without type-1 error inflation (Dienes, 2011).”
Method
Did I text you? The influence of the mode of transmission on destination memory
Pinto, R., & Albuquerque, P. B. (2024) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2024.2304771 · Cited by 2
“Considering the limitations of null hypothesis signi ﬁ cance testing (Dienes, 2011), Bayesian analyses were conducted to examine the evidence in favour of the null hypothesis (H0: no di ﬀ erences in destination memory when proverbs were transmitted aloud compared with when proverbs were transmitted…”
Method
Fluent Processing Amplifies Affective Judgments
Zhou, Y., & Kawabata, H. (2023) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000601 · Cited by 2
Can the left hand benefit from being right? The influence of body side on perceived grasping ability
Taylor, R. L., McLatchie, N. M., & Linkenauger, S. A. (2024) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-024-02983-7 · Cited by 2
Neural Evidence for Action-Related Somatosensory Predictions
Moran, C., Hogendoorn, H., & Landau, A. N. (2026) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0889-25.2026 · Cited by 2
“BFs larger than 1 indicate that there is more evidence for the alternative hypothesis than the null hypothesis (Dienes, 2011) with a BF greater than 3 considered as “ substantial ” evidence for the alternative hypothesis i.e. decoding above-or below-chance level.”
Data-driven prior elicitation for Bayes factors in Cox regression for nine subfields in biomedicine
Linde, M., Jochim, L., Tendeiro, J. N., & van Ravenzwaaij, D. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0322144 · Cited by 2
“According to them, the prior allows the incorporation of domain knowledge and results from prior studies into Bayesian analyses and therefore permits tests of theories [32,76].”
Within-day associations between affect and intentions to drink alcohol in adolescents and young adults: A registered report.
King, K. M., Dora, J., Schultz, M. E., McCabe, C. J., Lee, C. M., Shoda, Y., Fairlie, A. M., Litt, D., Lewis, M. A., Patrick, M. E., et al. (2025) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/adb0001074 · Cited by 2
Assessing optimal colour and illumination to facilitate reading: an analysis of print size
Morrice, E., Murphy, C. E., Soldano, V., Addona, C., Wittich, W., & Johnson, A. P. (2021) · Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics · doi:10.1111/opo.12885 · Cited by 2
A New Method for Re-Analyzing Evaluation Bias: Piecewise Growth Curve Modeling Reveals an Asymmetry in the Evaluation of Pro and Con Arguments
Jirschitzka, J., Kimmerle, J., & Creß, U. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0148283 · Cited by 2
It's all about the transient: Intra-saccadic onset stimuli do not capture attention
Mathôt, S., & Theeuwes, J. (2012) · Journal of Eye Movement Research · doi:10.16910/jemr.5.2.4 · Cited by 2
“Using these parameters, and assuming a uniform prior distribution, we determined the Bayes factor (cf. Dienes, 2011), Bf = 0.15.”
MethodInfluential
Priming effect in affirmative complex conditional connectives
Espino, O., & Villar, B. (2016) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2016.1188820 · Cited by 2
“However, from this non-significant result we are unable to determine whether this implies that there is evidence for the null hypothesis or that there is no evidence for any conclusion (Dienes, 2011; Rouder, Speckman, Sun, Morey, & Iverson, 2009).”
Background
Reduced effects of pictorial distinctiveness on false memory following dynamic visual noise
Parker, A., Kember, T., & Dagnall, N. (2016) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2016.1229793 · Cited by 2
Perception and Expressing Habits of Smiling and Angry Expressions Modulated by Facial Physical Attractiveness in Asian Female Persons
Song, M., Shinomori, K., & Qian, Q. (2018) · Japanese Psychological Research · doi:10.1111/jpr.12198 · Cited by 2
Where Fisher, Neyman and Pearson went astray: On the logic (plus some history and philosophy) of Statistical Tests
Saint‐Mont, U. (2018) · Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal · doi:10.14738/assrj.58.4867 · Cited by 2
The Distinctiveness Effect in the Recognition of Whole Melodies
Rainsford, M., Palmer, M. A., & Sauer, J. D. (2019) · Music Perception An Interdisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1525/mp.2019.36.3.253 · Cited by 2
Toward an integrative model accounting for typical and atypical development of visuospatial short-term memory
Attout, L., Noël, M., & Rousselle, L. (2020) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2020.1793923 · Cited by 2
Improving the Assessment of Teaching Effectiveness With the Nonequivalent Dependent Variables Approach
Reynolds, J. J. (2021) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/00986283211022390 · Cited by 2
“A full discussion of this is beyond the scope of this article but see Dienes (2011); Ioannidis (2019); Kruschke and Liddell (2018); Szucs and Ioannidis (2017); and Wagenmakers et al. (2018).”
Background
Exploring the ventral white matter language network in bimodal and unimodal bilinguals
Quartarone, C., Navarrete, E., Budisavljević, S., & Peressotti, F. (2022) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2022.105187 · Cited by 2
“This has the advantage to quantify the evidence in favor of the alternative hypothesis and to overcome the problem of multiple testing (Dienes, 2011).”
The Impact of Sleep Quality on Mood in Beach Volleyball Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Study
da Silva, G. M., Simim, M. A. D. M., Nakamura, F. Y., Coswig, V. S., Assumpção, C. D. O., & Medeiros, A. I. A. (2023) · Retos · doi:10.47197/retos.v48.96972 · Cited by 2
Deciding to Stop Early or Continue the Experiment After Checking p -Values at Interim Points: Introducing Group Sequential Designs to UI-Based Comparative Studies
Yamanaka, S. (2024) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2407662 · Cited by 2
“For a more appropriate use and advantages of Bayesian statistics, readers are directed to the reference literature or textbooks (Dienes, 2011; Howard et al., 2000; Kruschke, 2010).”
The time course of synaesthetic colour perception
Lungu, L., Rothen, N., & Terhune, D. B. (2021) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2021.04.018 · Cited by 2
The assessment of psychological resilience in sport performers
Sarkar, M. (2015) · Loughborough University Institutional Repository (Loughborough University) · Cited by 2
Computational cognitive neuroscience: Model fitting should not replace model simulationPreprint
Palminteri, S., Wyart, V., & Koechlin, É. (2016) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/079798 · Cited by 2
“Theory rejection represents the logic substratum of hypothesis testing as implemented in classical ‘frequentist’ statistics 12,14 .”
Method
Predictability of salient distractor increases top-down control in healthy younger and older adultsPreprint
Haupt, M., Napiórkowski, N., Sorg, C., Müller, H. J., & Finke, K. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/617712 · Cited by 2
“B10 values between 1 and 3 (as well as between 1 and 1/3 accordingly) would only yield ‘anecdotal evidence’ for an hypothesis (e.g. Dienes, 2011; Wagenmakers et al., 2011).”
Background
Many perspectives on Deborah Mayo's "Statistical Inference as Severe Testing: How to Get Beyond the Statistics Wars"Preprint
Gelman, A., Haig, B. D., Hennig, C. M., Owen, A. B., Cousins, R. D., Young, S. S., Robert, C. P., Yanofsky, C. M., Wagenmakers, E., Kenett, R. S., et al. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1905.08876 · Cited by 5
“adre of methodologists has recently advocated the use of Bayesian statistical methods as a superior alternative to the messy frequentist practice that dominates psychology’s research landscape (e.g., Dienes, 2011, Wagenmakers, 2007). These Bayesians criticize NHST, often advocate the use of Bayes factors for hypothesi…”
Method
Understanding rumination as a form of inner speech: probing the role of motor processesPreprint
Nalborczyk, L. (2019) · Thesis Commons (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31237/osf.io/p6dct · Cited by 4
“…statistics (like p-values and confidence intervals) are often attributable to the wrong interpretation of these statistics as resulting from a Bayesian analysis (e.g., Dienes, 2011; Gigerenzer, 2004; Hoekstra, Morey, Rouder, & Wagenmakers, 2014; Kruschke & Liddell, 2018a; Morey et al., 2015).”
Has the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak had an impact on uptake of digital cessation support in UK smokers? An interrupted time series analysis (Preprint)Preprint
Perski, O., Herbeć, A., Shahab, L., & Brown, J. (2020) · doi:10.2196/preprints.19392 · Cited by 2
Simulation Studies as a Tool to Understand Bayes FactorsPreprint
van Ravenzwaaij, D., & Etz, A. J. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/27ndb · Cited by 2
Active Recognition Attempts Induce Updating of Face MemoriesPreprint
Plummer, M., Hellerstedt, R., Gibson, S. J., Simons, J. S., & Bergström, Z. M. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/63qnj · Cited by 2
“We also calculated Bayes Factors for all t-tests to compare the ratio of evidence in support of the alternative hypothesis of a difference in means in either direction, versus the null hypothesis of no difference in means (see Dienes, 2011).”
Method
Prevailing theories of consciousness are challenged by novel cross-modal associations acquired between subliminal stimuliPreprint
Scott, R. B. Y., Samaha, J., Chrisley, R., & Dienes, Z. P. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/tj3d2 · Cited by 2
Self-citation
Does alleviating poverty increase cognitive performance? Short and long term evidence from a randomized controlled trialPreprint
Szászi, B., Szécsi, P., Pálfi, B., Neszveda, G., Blattman, C., Jamison, J., Taka, A., & Sheridan, M. A. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/4gyzh · Cited by 2
Pre-frontal stimulation does not reliably increase reward responsiveness
Hadden, L., Penny, H., Jones, A. L., Partridge, A. M., Lancaster, T. M., & Allen, C. P. G. (2022) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2022.11.011 · Cited by 1
“Bayes factors greater than 6 were interpreted as substantial evidence for the hypotheses and Bayes factors less than 1/6 were interpreted as substantial evidence for the null (Dienes, 2011; Jeffreys, 1998).”
Background
False memory-guided eye movements: insights from a DRM-Saccade paradigm
Knott, L. M., Litchfield, D., Donovan, T., & Marsh, J. E. (2024) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2024.2307921 · Cited by 1
“Software described in Dienes (2008, 2011, 2014) was used to under-take the Bayes factor calculation.”
Method
Can templates-for-rejection suppress real-world affective objects in visual search?
Brown, C. R. H., & Derakshan, N. (2024) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-023-02410-2 · Cited by 1
“Based on the combination of the prior and likelihood, we obtain the posterior probability that the observed evidence supports or contradicts the initial theory (Dienes, 2011, 2014; Wagenmakers et al., 2018).”
From long-term to short-term: Distinct neural networks underlying semantic knowledge and its recruitment in working memory
Querella, P., Attout, L., Fias, W., & Majerus, S. (2024) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2024.108949 · Cited by 1
Racial salience modulated the face race lightness illusion: A comparative study of Caucasians and Asians
Yan, L., Zhu, Y., Shen, Y., Zhang, Z., Liang, Y., Wang, Z., & Sun, Y.-H. P. (2024) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-024-02947-x · Cited by 1
“Bayesian analysis utilizes Bayes factors to assess the likelihood ratio of the alternative hypothesis being true relative to the null hypothesis being true (Dienes, 2011).”
Active and Passive Offline Breaks Differentially Impact the Consolidation of Procedural Motor Memories in Children and Adults
Voisin, D., Peigneux, P., & Urbain, C. M. (2024) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.70138 · Cited by 4
Impact of concurrent temporal but not spatial processing on working memory for serial order
Attout, L., Remouchamps, R., & Majerus, S. (2025) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218251346745 · Cited by 1
“For data analysis, we used a Bayesian model comparison strategy to select and quantify the strength of evidence associated with each model (Dienes, 2011; Morey & Rouder, 2011; Wagenmakers, 2007).”
Rethinking Scaling Up Content Analysis: A Reappraisal of Justifications and Practices for Large-Scale Content Analysis
Linde, M., Chan, C., & Balluff, P. (2025) · Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10776990251378122 · Cited by 1
Semantic Similarity Effect on Delayed Free Recall Using Word Embeddings for Turkish
Büyükyaprak, B., Yet, B., & Kılıç, A. (2026) · Computational Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1007/s42113-026-00332-5 · Cited by 1
Working with an Online Artificial Partner Enhances Implicit and Reduces Explicit Sense of Agency
Le, A. H., Burke, T., & Bayliss, A. P. (2025) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2025.103962 · Cited by 1
Online corrections to visual targets are not a distinct class of movement
Mekhaiel, D. Y., Goodale, M. A., & Corneil, B. D. (2026) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2026.115263 · Cited by 1
“30 We denoted force onset as the first instance of sustained divergence using a conservative threshold of BF > 10, indicating a strong likelihood of a difference.”
Left DLPFC involvement in verbal working memory in ageing: A cTBS–ERP study
León-Correa, E., Balani, A. B., Qureshi, A., Tse, D., & Makris, S. (2026) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2026.109553 · Cited by 1
Anodal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (TDCS) at Fp3–Fp2 Reduces the Face Inversion Effect: Evidence Against an Expectancy Account
Civile, C. (2026) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci16091000 · Cited by 1
“Bayes factors (BFs) were computed following the convention adopted in previous works with this protocol [45], using a half-normal prior whose standard deviation was set from the relevant earlier finding.”
Disrupting objectification: transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) enhances the inversion effect toward sexualized women
Civile, C., & Stephens, A. (2026) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2026.2751696 · Cited by 1
“To evaluate the non-significant Orientation × Target interaction in the anodal group, we computed a Bayes factor (B; Dienes, 2011, 2014) for the objectification index, defined as the inversion effect (upright − inverted d’) for male targets minus that for female targets, so that positive values…”
Suggestions and Recommendations on Statistical Analysis and Research Methodology
Voidăzan, S. T., Moldovan, C., & Dobreanu, M. (2014) · Revista română de medicină de laborator · doi:10.2478/rrlm-2014-0046 · Cited by 1
“This ensures that the results yielded by that representative sample are not produced by chance and can be extrapolated to the target population [5, 6].”
Background
Structural equation modelling for studying intended game processes
Svahn, M., & Wahlund, R. (2015) · ETC Press eBooks · Cited by 1
Beliefs about a speaker affect feeling of another's knowing
Mol, L., Kuhlen, A. K., der Steen, R. V., & Obbens, M. (2013) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 1
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance Temporal Constraints of the Word Blindness Posthypnotic Suggestion on Stroop Task Performance
Parris, B. A., Dienes, Z. P., & Hodgson, T. L. (2012) · Cited by 1
Self-citation
Odours reduce the magnitude of object substitution masking for matching visual targets in females
Robinson, A. K., Laning, J., Reinhard, J., & Mattingley, J. B. (2016) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-016-1157-9 · Cited by 1
“…the strength of support for the alternative hypothesis (H1) relative to the null; values of B > 3 suggest substantial evidence in favour of H1, whereas values smaller than one third are regarded as providing substantial evidence in favour of the null hypothesis (Dienes, 2011; Jeffreys, 1961).”
Background
RESOLVING THREE IMPORTANT ISSUES ON MEASUREMENT INVARIANCE USING BAYESIAN STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING (BSEM)
Shi, D. (2016) · SHAREOK (University of Oklahoma; Oklahoma State University; Central Oklahoma University) · Cited by 1
Anticipatory access to group-level information in working memory
Farrell, S. (2018) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021817744428 · Cited by 1
“, Botvinick & Plaut, 2006; Brown, Neath, & Chater, 2007; Brown, Preece, & Hulme, 2000; Burgess & Hitch, 1999; Estes, 1972; Farrell, 2012; Farrell & Lewandowsky, 2002; Henson, 1998; Lewandowsky & Murdock, 1989; Page & Norris, 1998); for a review, see Lewandowsky and Farrell (2008). Despite their differing assumptions,…”
BackgroundMethod
Bayesian Inference: Parameter Estimation for Inference in Small Samples
Baig, S. A. (2021) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntab221 · Cited by 1
“Bayesian methods permit researchers to conduct as many statistical tests as desired so long as their total evidential value is taken into account in the process of inference.(17)”
Let’s Talk about Stats: Revising Our Approach to Teaching Statistics in Psychology
Reynolds, J. J. (2021) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941211043447 · Cited by 2
“Dienes (2011) provides a comparison of the two approaches and where they may result in different conclusions. Kruschke and Liddell (2018b) present an excellent overview of Bayesian data analysis for individuals starting out on the topic, as does Etz and Vandekerckhove (2018). van de Schoot and Depaoli (2014), as well…”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Internal and External Validity
Kazdin, A. E. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108993647.003 · Cited by 1
Mistakes strengthen the temporal binding effect in the context of goal-directed actions
Jenkins, M. A., & Obhi, S. S. (2022) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-022-06407-6 · Cited by 1
“Using Bayes Factors (BF), it is possible to assess the relative likelihood of the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis (see Dienes, 2011; 2014).”
Method
De l’entropie au principe de l’énergie libre : métapsychologie de la pulsion de mort et des enveloppes psychiques. Première partie
Rabeyron, T. (2022) · In Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.inan.2022.10.016 · Cited by 1
Likelihoodism and Guidance for Belief
Tokhadze, T. (2022) · Journal for General Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1007/s10838-022-09608-3 · Cited by 1
“Many critics of frequentism see Bayesianism as providing superior methods of dataanalysis (Dienes 2011; Wetzels et al. 2011; Kruschke 2013).”
Method
Bayesian analysis for nurse and midwifery research: statistical, practical and ethical benefits
Malone, H., & Coyne, I. (2023) · Nurse Researcher · doi:10.7748/nr.2023.e1852 · Cited by 1
Comparison of self-administered versus read-aloud questionnaires for psychological measurement in students with low intellectual functioning: use of frequentist and Bayesian approaches
Pérez-Salas, C., Parra, V. S., Ortega, A., Sáez-Delgado, F., Ramírez-Peña, P. F., & Zañartu, I. (2023) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2023.2243414 · Cited by 1
“Building on this idea, Bayesian analysis allows us to compare two (or more) competing models (e.g. null vs alternative) in light of the existent data and not only based on theoretical probability distributions, as in the Frequentist approach to hypothesis testing (Dienes 2011).”
Demographic and heredity correlates of day-dreaming propensity: insights from the behavioral data of the human Connectome Project Young Adult dataset
Baranes, L., Shimoni, H., & Axelrod, V. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06541-0 · Cited by 1
“Bayes factor (BF 10 ) below 0.33 was taken as support for H 0 (Dienes, 2011).”
Influential
Biased competition between action representations
Kyllingsbæk, S., Larsen, L. B., Pedersen, J. K., Sangoi, L., & Grünbaum, T. (2025) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2025.109149 · Cited by 1
“As Dienes (2011, 2024) and others (Etz et al., 2018; Rouder, 2014) have convincingly argued, Bayesian statistical analyses do not rely on any specification of the data collection in advance.”
THE USE OF FUNCTIONAL NEAR INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY (FNIRS) TO ASSESS COGNITIVE WORKLOAD OF AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS
Woo, H. S., Willems, B. F., Harrison, J., İzzetoğlu, K., Hah, S., & Ayaz, H. (2013) · Journal of Bioresource Management · Cited by 1
Unraveling Complexity about Childhood Obesity and Nutritional Interventions: Modeling Interactions Among Psychological Factors
Feldman, K., Solymos, G. M. B., de Albuquerque, M. P., & Chawla, N. V. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-55260-1 · Cited by 1
Overlapping Mechanisms in Implying and Inferring
Rees, A., & Bott, L. A. (2019) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12808 · Cited by 1
Influence of Psychological Vulnerability Factors for Bipolar Disorders on a Semantic Mediated Priming Task
Labalestra, M., Stefaniak, N., Lefèbvre, L., & Besche‐Richard, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.598114 · Cited by 2
“33 < BF < 3 is considered to lack sensitivity (Dienes, 2011).”
BackgroundInfluential
Pilot randomised controlled trial of the Risk Acceptance Ladder (RAL) as a tool for targeting health communications
Perski, O., Stevens, C., West, R., & Shahab, L. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0259949 · Cited by 1
“Values greater than 3 or smaller than 1/3 are typically regarded as providing substantial evidence for the alternative or null hypothesis, respectively, with intermediate values indicating that data are insensitive to distinguish between the two [20].”
Background
Case-Control and Cohort Designs
Kazdin, A. E. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108993647.008 · Cited by 1
Null Hypothesis Significance Testing
Kazdin, A. E. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108993647.014 · Cited by 1
Does transliminality predict subperceptual information processing?
Polito, V., Howarth, S., Roberts, A., & Arbige, S. (2025) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niaf044 · Cited by 1
Good science, bad science: Questioning research practices in psychological research
Bakker, M. (2014) · UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) · Cited by 1
Acute effects of alcohol on inhibition
Campbell, A. (2016) · ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) · Cited by 1
Fast fronto-parietal cortical dynamics of conflict detection and context updating in a flanker taskPreprint
Brydges, C. R., Barceló, F., Nguyen, A. T., & Fox, A. M. (2018) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/336958 · Cited by 1
“allows a hypothesis to be accepted or rejected by gathering evidence in favor of it (Dienes, 2011; Kruschke, 2013).”
In pursuit of visual attention: SSVEP frequency-tagging moving targetsPreprint
de Lissa, P., Caldara, R., Nicholls, V. I., & Miellet, S. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/804708 · Cited by 1
Decoding Predictions and Violations of Object Position and Category in Time-resolved EEGPreprint
Whyte, C. J., Robinson, A. K., Grootswagers, T., Hogendoorn, H., & Carlson, T. A. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.04.08.032888 · Cited by 1
“Using these distributions, we computed Bayes factors (Dienes, 2011; Jeffreys, 1998; Rouder, Speckman, Sun, Morey, & Iverson, 2009; Wagenmakers, 2007) which, being a ratio of marginal likelihoods, measures the evidence for the alternative hypothesis relative to the null.”
Method
Pilot randomised controlled trial of the Risk Acceptance Ladder (RAL) as a tool for targeting health communicationsPreprint
Perski, O., Stevens, C., West, R., & Shahab, L. (2020) · doi:10.32388/7idpz6 · Cited by 1

Authors: Dienes, Z.
Affiliations: University of Sussex (GB)
Corresponding author: Dienes, Zoltan
ORCID: Dienes, Zoltan
Venue: Perspectives on Psychological Science
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2011-05
Volume: 6
Issue: 3
Pages: 274-290
ISSN: 1745-6916 (ISSN-L)
1745-6924
DOI: 10.1177/1745691611406920
OpenAlex: W2055754299
Cited by: 938
References: 60
Citations by year: 2026: 25 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 64 · 2021: 99 · 2020: 87 · 2019: 84 · 2018: 98 · 2017: 82 · 2016: 76 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 48 · 2013: 42 · 2012: 33
FWCI: 6.30
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
figshare.com
Licence: cc-by
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Perspectives on Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Bayesian Inference
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Probability and Statistical Research
Keywords: Bayesian inference, significance testing, null hypothesis significance testing, multiple comparisons, stopping rules

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Bayesian Versus Orthodox Statistics: Which Side Are You On?

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks