Cited by 321Statistical Methods in Clinical TrialsSubstance Abuse Treatment and OutcomesMeta-analysis and systematic reviews

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Exploratory randomized controlled trial evaluating the impact of a waiting list control design

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Cunningham, John A, Kypri, Kypros, McCambridge, Jim·2013·BMC Medical Research Methodology

DOI 10.1186/1471-2288-13-150PMC PMC4029562

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Abstract

BACKGROUND: Employing waiting list control designs in psychological and behavioral intervention research may artificially inflate intervention effect estimates. This exploratory randomized controlled trial tested this proposition in a study employing a brief intervention for problem drinkers, one domain of research in which waiting list control designs are used. METHODS: All participants (N = 185) were provided with brief personalized feedback intervention materials after being randomly allocated either to be told that they were in the intervention condition and that this was the intervention or to be told that they were in the waiting list control condition and that they would receive access to the intervention in four weeks with this information provided in the meantime. RESULTS: A total of 157 participants (85%) were followed-up after 4 weeks. Between-group differences were found in one of four outcomes (proportion within safe drinking guidelines). An interaction was identified between experimental manipulation and stage of change at study entry such that participant change was arrested among those more ready to change and told they were on the waiting list. CONCLUSIONS: Trials with waiting list control conditions may overestimate treatment effects, though the extent of any such bias appears likely to vary between study populations. Arguably they should only be used where this threat to valid inference has been carefully assessed.

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“…mana subjek yang berada di kelompok WL nantinya akan diberikan perlakuan yang sama (perlakuan tertunda) setelah perlakuan pada kelompok eksperimen selesai, sembari peneliti tetap mendapatkan data evaluasi (pretes, postes, observasi, dll) dari subjek di kelompok tersebut (Cunningham et al., 2013).”
Mitigating feelings of loneliness and depression by means of web-based or print-based physical activity interventions: Pooled analysis of two community-based intervention trials (Preprint)Preprint
Lippke, S., Ratz, T., Keller, F. M., Juljugin, D., Peters, M., Pischke, C. R., & Voelcker‐Rehage, C. (2022) · doi:10.2196/preprints.36515
Outcome Evaluation
Sidani, S., & Braden, C. J. (2021) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119610113.ch14
Mindfulness for men with pregnant partners: An integrative literature review (Part two)
Jones, D., Ebert, L. M., & Hazelton, M. (2017) · British Journal of Midwifery · doi:10.12968/bjom.2017.25.12.783
Development of a Web-Based Peer Support Program for Family Caregivers of Ventilator-Assisted Individuals Living in the Community: Protocol for a Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial (Preprint)Preprint
Wasilewski, M. B., Nonoyama, M. L., Dale, C., Mckim, D. A., ROAD, J. D., Leasa, D. J., Goldstein, R. S., & Rose, L. (2018) · doi:10.2196/preprints.11827
Effects of 8 Weeks of Balance Training, Virtual Training, and Combined Exercise on Lower Limb Muscle Strength Balance, and Functional Mobility Among Older Men: A Randomized Controlled Trial: Letter to the Editor
Sharma, N., Kumar, P., Kaur, S., & Sharma, N. (2023) · Sports Health A Multidisciplinary Approach · doi:10.1177/19417381231175478
Increasing transcultural competence in clinical psychologists through a web-based training: study protocol for a randomized controlled trialPreprint
Studer, S., Kleinstäuber, M., von Lersner, U., & Weise, C. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3142516/v1
Design and analysis
Coco, L., & Gallun, F. J. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-91259-4.00035-7
Examining Changes in Quality of Life as an Outcome Measure in Three Randomized Controlled Trials of Online Interventions That Included an Intervention for Hazardous Alcohol Use
Schell, C., Godinho, A., & Cunningham, J. A. (2023) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2023.2259453
“While there are advantages to this design (Cunningham et al., 2013), in this case, the two interventions may have been too similar to have a differential effect on QOL, especially as there is research showing that an individual’s QOL may improve by participating in treat-ment without necessarily…”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citation
Feasibility and cross-cultural validation of an adapted social skills group training programme (KONTAKT™ CHILD) for Chinese autistic children: a wait-list RCT protocolPreprint
Lao, U., Zhu, H., Liang, F., Bai, E. W., Yin, P., Huang, X., Girdler, S. J., Bölte, S., & Zou, X. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.10.30.23296686
“These differences also affect collaboration among various social service providers, including healthcare, schools, and communities [33, 34, 35].”
Background
(No) Effects of a Self-Kindness Intervention on Self-Esteem and Visual Self-Perception: An Eye-Tracking Investigation on the Time-Course of Self-Face Viewing
Potthoff, J., & Schienle, A. (2023) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe13110179
“We chose an active control group (instead of a waiting-list group) to avoid overestimation of treatment effects [21].”
Method
Assisterande teknik - att ta till sig och producera text: Ett stöd för elever i anpassad grund- och gymnasieskola
Sand, C. (2024) · doi:10.15626/lud.528.2024
Effectiveness of social skills interventions in young people aged 12 to 25 years with autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Velalagan, R., Wu, W. T., John, J. R., Lin, P., & Eapen, V. (2026) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-026-08579-9
Results of a Culturally Tailored Advance Care Planning Intervention for American Indian Peoples: A Quasi-Experimental Waitlist-Controlled Trial
Schweinhart, A. M., Goins, R. T., & Anderson, E. (2025) · Innovation in Aging · doi:10.1093/geroni/igaf041
“As such, we used a waitlist-controlled design, which is inherently less rigorous than an RCT and research suggests that behavioral health interventions using this approach may inflate intervention effect (Cunningham et al., 2013).”
A waitlist randomised control trial of the unified protocol for the treatment of emotional disorders in children and adolescents with chronic medical conditions (The UP-CAM Study): protocol paper
Botchway-Commey, E. N., Burton, C., Pace, C. C., Ehrenreich, J. T., Kennedy, S. M., Williams, J. S., Poulakis, Z., DPsychClin, A. M., Anderson, V. A., & Crowe, L. M. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03052-w
“Although the waitlist control group method is said to sometimes cause people to stall in their personal efforts to change behaviour [59] and overestimate treat-ment effects, our short waitlist period (i.e., 8 weeks) and regular contact with this group during the waitlist period are expected to…”
Evaluating a Digital Mindful Self-Compassion Intervention to Reduce Compassion Fatigue in Violence Service Workers: A Pilot Randomised Controlled Trial
Asriati, R., & Oriza, I. I. D. (2025) · Konselor · doi:10.24036/02025142127-0-86
“A wait-list control means that participants who want help will still receive the intervention later, while allowing researchers to analyze the results from the main intervention group (Cunningham et al., 2013).”
Evaluation of the Transitional Pain Service Specialized Iyengar-Informed Yoga Program for Chronic Post-Surgical Pain: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial
Curtis, K., Clarke, H. A., Mina, D. S., Bechsgaard, G., Weinrib, A., Jones, J. S., Au, D., & Katz, J. D. (2025) · OBM Integrative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.21926/obm.icm.2503041
Applying Virtual Reality in Mindfulness Exercises for Emotion Regulation and Mental Health Among Inpatients With Behavioral Issues: A Feasibility Study
Lee, J., & Kim, J. (2025) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/08901171251391600 · Cited by 1
“48 Second, the characteristics of the study population and facility may have introduced bias.”
The tracking and reducing alcohol consumption (TRAC) intervention for veterans living with HIV/AIDS: results from a pilot randomized waitlist-controlled trial
Lauckner, C., Adatorwovor, R., Taylor, E. W., Sesenu, F., Tanner, T., Whitmire, A., Marconi, V. C., Kershaw, T., & Hansen, N. B. (2025) · Addiction Science & Clinical Practice · doi:10.1186/s13722-025-00631-5
“While waitlist-control groups have noted disadvantages, such as inflated effect sizes [36, 37], they are common in alcohol reduction interventions [38–40] and in this case represented an approach that balanced scientific rigor with equity and principles of beneficence.”
Supporting Healthcare and Paramedic Employees (SHAPE)—study protocol for a single-blind, superiority randomised controlled trial evaluating cognitive therapy coaching for PTSD and MDD for health and social care workers in the United Kingdom
Laing, J., McKinnon, A. I., Creswell, C., Ehlers, A., & Wild, J. (2025) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-025-09341-4
“Some research suggests that participants assigned to wait conditions avoid attempting behaviour change on their own and, as such, demonstrate limited improvement [73].”
Additional file 4 of Effectiveness of a digital intervention versus alcohol information for online help-seekers in Sweden: a randomised controlled trial
Bendtsen, M., Åsberg, K., & McCambridge, J. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19777956
Self-citation
Additional file 4 of Neurofeedback for tinnitus: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial assessing the specificity of an alpha/delta neurofeedback training protocol in alleviating both sound perception and psychological distress in a cohort of chronic tinnitus sufferers
Jensen, M., Hüttenrauch, E., Schmidt, J., Andersson, G., Chavanon, M.-L., & Weise, C. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12257978
Additional file 1 of Neurofeedback for tinnitus: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial assessing the specificity of an alpha/delta neurofeedback training protocol in alleviating both sound perception and psychological distress in a cohort of chronic tinnitus sufferers
Jensen, M., Hüttenrauch, E., Schmidt, J., Andersson, G., Chavanon, M.-L., & Weise, C. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12257963
Additional file 1 of Rationale and design of a randomised controlled trial investigating the effect of multidisciplinary nutritional rehabilitation for patients treated for head and neck cancer (the NUTRI-HAB trial)
Kristensen, M. B., Wessel, I., Beck, A. M., Dieperink, K. B., Mikkelsen, T. B., Møller, J.-J. K., & Zwisler, A.-D. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.11999325
Additional file 1 of Efficacy of affirmative cognitive behavioural group therapy for sexual and gender minority adolescents and young adults in community settings in Ontario, Canada
Craig, S. L., Eaton, A. D., Leung, V. W. Y., Iacono, G., Pang, N., Dillon, F. R., Austin, A., Pascoe, R. V., & Dobinson, C. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14746329
Additional file 6 of Neurofeedback for tinnitus: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial assessing the specificity of an alpha/delta neurofeedback training protocol in alleviating both sound perception and psychological distress in a cohort of chronic tinnitus sufferers
Jensen, M., Hüttenrauch, E., Schmidt, J., Andersson, G., Chavanon, M.-L., & Weise, C. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12257987
Additional file 3 of Rationale and design of a randomised controlled trial investigating the effect of multidisciplinary nutritional rehabilitation for patients treated for head and neck cancer (the NUTRI-HAB trial)
Kristensen, M. B., Wessel, I., Beck, A. M., Dieperink, K. B., Mikkelsen, T. B., Møller, J.-J. K., & Zwisler, A.-D. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.11999340
Additional file 3 of Effectiveness of a digital intervention versus alcohol information for online help-seekers in Sweden: a randomised controlled trial
Bendtsen, M., Åsberg, K., & McCambridge, J. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19777953
Self-citation
Additional file 2 of Neurofeedback for tinnitus: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial assessing the specificity of an alpha/delta neurofeedback training protocol in alleviating both sound perception and psychological distress in a cohort of chronic tinnitus sufferers
Jensen, M., Hüttenrauch, E., Schmidt, J., Andersson, G., Chavanon, M.-L., & Weise, C. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12257969
Additional file 2 of “Goals in Focus”—a targeted CBT approach for motivational negative symptoms of psychosis: study protocol for a randomized-controlled feasibility trial
Schormann, A. L. A., Pillny, M., Haß, K., & Lincoln, T. M. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.22735638
Additional file 1 of Exploratory mixed methods analysis of self-authored content from participants in a digital alcohol intervention trial
Collier, E. S., Blomqvist, J., Crawford, J., McCambridge, J., & Bendtsen, M. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24454950
Self-citation
Additional file 2 of Effectiveness of a digital intervention versus alcohol information for online help-seekers in Sweden: a randomised controlled trial
Bendtsen, M., Åsberg, K., & McCambridge, J. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19777950
Self-citation
Additional file 7 of Neurofeedback for tinnitus: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial assessing the specificity of an alpha/delta neurofeedback training protocol in alleviating both sound perception and psychological distress in a cohort of chronic tinnitus sufferers
Jensen, M., Hüttenrauch, E., Schmidt, J., Andersson, G., Chavanon, M.-L., & Weise, C. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12257993
Additional file 5 of Effectiveness of a digital intervention versus alcohol information for online help-seekers in Sweden: a randomised controlled trial
Bendtsen, M., Åsberg, K., & McCambridge, J. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19777959
Self-citation
Additional file 5 of Rationale and design of a randomised controlled trial investigating the effect of multidisciplinary nutritional rehabilitation for patients treated for head and neck cancer (the NUTRI-HAB trial)
Kristensen, M. B., Wessel, I., Beck, A. M., Dieperink, K. B., Mikkelsen, T. B., Møller, J.-J. K., & Zwisler, A.-D. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.11999352
Additional file 5 of Neurofeedback for tinnitus: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial assessing the specificity of an alpha/delta neurofeedback training protocol in alleviating both sound perception and psychological distress in a cohort of chronic tinnitus sufferers
Jensen, M., Hüttenrauch, E., Schmidt, J., Andersson, G., Chavanon, M.-L., & Weise, C. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12257984
Additional file 1 of Effectiveness of a digital intervention versus alcohol information for online help-seekers in Sweden: a randomised controlled trial
Bendtsen, M., Åsberg, K., & McCambridge, J. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19777944
Self-citation
Additional file 1 of Strengthening Mental Abilities with Relational Training (SMART) in multiple sclerosis (MS): study protocol for a feasibility randomised controlled trial
Moghaddam, N., Dawson, D. L., Nikos, E., Turton, J. C., Hawton, A., Law, G. R., Roche, B., Rowan, E., Burge, R., Frost, A. C., et al. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.20887251
Additional file 2 of Rationale and design of a randomised controlled trial investigating the effect of multidisciplinary nutritional rehabilitation for patients treated for head and neck cancer (the NUTRI-HAB trial)
Kristensen, M. B., Wessel, I., Beck, A. M., Dieperink, K. B., Mikkelsen, T. B., Møller, J.-J. K., & Zwisler, A.-D. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.11999331

Authors: Cunningham, J. A., Kypri, K., & McCambridge, J.
Affiliations: Australian National University (AU)
University of Newcastle Australia (AU)
London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (GB)
Corresponding author: Cunningham, John A
ORCID: Cunningham, John A
Kypri, Kypros
McCambridge, Jim
Venue: BMC Medical Research Methodology
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2013-12
Volume: 13
Issue: 1
Pages: 150-150
ISSN: 1471-2288 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1186/1471-2288-13-150
PMC: PMC4029562
OpenAlex: W2132268984
Cited by: 321
References: 40
Citations by year: 2026: 18 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 37 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 10
FWCI: 7.62
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0 (tdm)
Locations: BMC Medical Research Methodology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
LSHTM Research Online (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) (acceptedVersion)
Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
NOVA (University of Newcastle Australia) (submittedVersion)
Funders: Wellcome Trust (WT086516MA)
Medical Research Council
Topics: Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials
Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
Keywords: overestimation of treatment effects, brief intervention, problem drinking, personalized feedback, stages of change, alcohol consumption, drinking guidelines
MeSH terms: Adult, Alcohol Drinking, Behavior Therapy, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Research Design, Waiting Lists, Bias, Alcohol-Related Disorders

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Exploratory randomized controlled trial evaluating the impact of a waiting list control design

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