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Effects of a physical education intervention on cognitive function in young children: randomized controlled pilot study
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Background: Randomized controlled trials (RCT) are required to test relationships between physical activity and cognition in children, but these must be informed by exploratory studies. This study aimed to inform future RCT by: conducting practical utility and reliability studies to identify appropriate cognitive outcome measures; piloting an RCT of a 10 week physical education (PE) intervention which involved 2 hours per week of aerobically intense PE compared to 2 hours of standard PE (control). Methods: 64 healthy children (mean age 6.2 yrs SD 0.3; 33 boys) recruited from 6 primary schools. Outcome measures were the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Battery (CANTAB), the Attention Network Test (ANT), the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) and the short form of the Connor's Parent Rating Scale (CPRS:S). Physical activity was measured habitually and during PE sessions using the Actigraph accelerometer. Results: Test- retest intraclass correlations from CANTAB Spatial Span (r 0.51) and Spatial Working Memory Errors (0.59) and ANT Reaction Time (0.37) and ANT Accuracy (0.60) were significant, but low. Physical activity was significantly higher during intervention vs. control PE sessions (p < 0.0001). There were no significant differences between intervention and control group changes in CAS scores. Differences between intervention and control groups favoring the intervention were observed for CANTAB Spatial Span, CANTAB Spatial Working Memory Errors, and ANT Accuracy. Conclusions: The present study has identified practical and age-appropriate cognitive and behavioral outcome measures for future RCT, and identified that schools are willing to increase PE time. Trial registration number: ISRCTN70853932 (http://www.controlled-trials.com)
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“Several studies have identified a positive relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness, weight and AP (46–49) or with overall physical fitness (82).”
From Children's Physical Activity, Academic Performance, and Cognitive Functioning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2020) · cites this paper as [46]
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InfluentialLess-structured time in children's daily lives predicts self-directed executive functioning
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MacMillan, F., Kirk, A. F., Mutrie, N., & Robertson, K. J. (2014) · Practical Diabetes · doi:10.1002/pdi.1874 · Cited by 15
Jiang, S., Zeng, N., Ng, J. Y. Y., Chong, K. H., Zeng, T., Leung, S. K. Y., & Ha, A. S. C. (2025) · Journal of sport and health science/Journal of Sport and Health Science · doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2025.101085 · Cited by 28
Tseng, W.-Y., Rekik, G., Chen, C.-H., Clemente, F. M., Bezerra, P., Crowley‐McHattan, Z. J., & Chen, Y. (2021) · Journal of Physical Activity and Health · doi:10.1123/jpah.2020-0823 · Cited by 15
Bugge, A., Tarp, J., Østergaard, L. J., Domazet, S. L., Andersen, L. B., & Froberg, K. (2014) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-967 · Cited by 16
“Some school-based interventions have already been conducted with the aim of investigating the effect of increased PA on cognitive function and/or academic skills [20-24].”
BackgroundResultConsistency of spatial ability performance in children, adolescents, and young adults
Morawietz, C., Dumalski, N., Wissmann, A. M., Wecking, J., & Muehlbauer, T. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1365941 · Cited by 13
“Fisher et al. (2011) performed a digital spatial span task in 64 Scottish children as part of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Battery finding a moderate-to-good ICC value of 0.51 and an SEM value of 0.60.”
MethodInfluentialLawson, G. A. V., Ugrinowitsch, C., Costa, R. R., & Lamas, L. (2025) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2025.2468587 · Cited by 13
Latino, F., Romano, G., & Tafuri, F. (2024) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci14111199 · Cited by 29
Enhancing problem-solving skills through physical education learning: a comprehensive analysis
Purnomo, E., Jermaina, N., Marheni, E., Gumilar, A., Widarsa, A. H., Elpatsa, A., & Abidin, N. E. Z. (2024) · Retos · doi:10.47197/retos.v58.106838 · Cited by 11
“Physical education also helps in developing important social skills such as teamwork, communication, and leadership (Esteban-Cornejo et al. 2015; Fisher et al. 2011; Purnomo, Ma’mun, et al. 2024) .”
BackgroundXie, Z.-W., Wang, L., Chen, H., Liang, G., & Yang, X.-L. (2024) · Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness · doi:10.1016/j.jesf.2024.02.003 · Cited by 10
“8,14,43 A group of factors may influence their sedentary volume and bouts in PE classes, such as, PE class environment, teaching experience, expertise and teaching behaviours of PE teachers, class size, PE activities, students ’ PE motivation, class organization and so on.”
BackgroundPattern of Sedentary Behavior in Different Periods of School Time of Brazilian Adolescents
da Costa, B. G. G., da Silva, K. S., Bandeira, A. D. S., Martins, C. R., Vieira, J. A. J., & Petróski, E. L. (2019) · Journal of School Health · doi:10.1111/josh.12716 · Cited by 10
Laurent, C. W. S., Burkart, S. A., & Alhassan, S. (2019) · International journal of exercise science · doi:10.70252/voii8947 · Cited by 10
“Furthermore, previous studies examining physical activity and cognition have mainly been implemented either during classroom time or immediately after-school (2, 3, 7, 15, 21, 31).”
BackgroundOverweight/obesity and socio-demographic disparities in children’s motor and cognitive function
Moss, S., Zhang, X., Tamplain, P. M., & Gu, X. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1134647 · Cited by 13
“The Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Battery (CANTABTM) has been deemed age-appropriate for young populations (Fisher et al., 2011).”
MethodMiera, O., Sandica, E., Haas, N. A., Schweiger, M., Stiller, B., Kozlik-Feldmann, R. G., Perez, M., Michel‐Behnke, I., Schmitt, K. R. L., Schubert, S., et al. (2024) · JHLT Open · doi:10.1016/j.jhlto.2024.100125 · Cited by 7
Li, J., Huang, Z., Feng, X., & Liu, Y. (2025) · Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2025.102016 · Cited by 10
Relationship between Low School Performance and Obesity in Adolescents: An Article Review
Lozano-Bustillo, A., Eguigurems, D. M. O., Melendez, W. R. B., & Chirinos, K. A. M. (2016) · World Journal of Nutrition and Health · doi:10.12691/jnh-4-1-3 · Cited by 7
Magnusson, M., Lewis, M. H., Smaga-Blom, M., Lissner, L., & Pickering, C. (2014) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-763 · Cited by 7
“However, positive cognitive effects of adding more physical activity to the school curriculum of children could be measured [22], again suggesting the value of measuring these parameters in addition to those related to anthropometry.”
BackgroundFactors to affect improvement in cyber officer performance
Helkala, K., Knox, B., Jøsok, Ø., Knox, S., & Lund, M. S. (2016) · Information and Computer Security · doi:10.1108/ics-01-2016-0001 · Cited by 7
Xu, Y., Lin, N., Wu, C., Wen, X., Zhong, F., Ke-hong, Y., Li, S., & Huang, C. X. (2023) · Journal of Teaching in Physical Education · doi:10.1123/jtpe.2022-0175 · Cited by 10
Katanić, B., Aleksić‐Veljković, A., Radaković, R., Stojiljković, N., Olănescu, M., Peris, M., Suciu, A., & Popa, D. (2024) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11040479 · Cited by 10
“Meanwhile, some authors also point out the positive effects of physical education intervention on certain cognitive abilities of children [37].”
BackgroundBadu, K. M., Sugiharto, S., & Hariyanto, E. (2021) · Jurnal Pendidikan Teori Penelitian dan Pengembangan · doi:10.17977/jptpp.v6i12.15180 · Cited by 6
Hui, L., Sun, W., Luping, Q., & Nannan, G. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1355821 · Cited by 6
Syväoja, H. J. (2014) · Jyväskylä University Digital Archive (University of Jyväskylä) · Cited by 6
The impact of child care on child development in daycare and at home
Dwiyatna, A. A., Irwanto, I., Setiawati, Y., & Wardhani, I. L. (2020) · Pediatria i Medycyna Rodzinna · doi:10.15557/pimr.2020.0053 · Cited by 5
“It is recognised that parents like this tend to be flexible with upbringing towards their children (11) .”
BÖLÜKBAŞ, M. G., Vatansever, Ş., & GÜNGÖR, A. K. (2022) · Turkiye Klinikleri Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.5336/sportsci.2021-84119 · Cited by 5
Evaluation of Biases in Construction Project Dispute Resolution: Case Study
Tayeh, B. A., Alaloul, W., Alkurdi, M. H., Aisheh, Y. I. A., & Musarat, M. A. (2022) · Journal of Legal Affairs and Dispute Resolution in Engineering and Construction · doi:10.1061/(asce)la.1943-4170.0000525 · Cited by 2
Enhancing Visuospatial Working Memory and Motor Skills Through School-Based Coordination Training
Forte, P., Pugliese, E., Aquino, G., Matrisciano, C., Carlevaro, F., Magno, F., Magistro, D., & D’Anna, C. (2025) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports13110396 · Cited by 5
Effect of Motivation and Physical Fitness on Cyber Tasks
Helkala, K. M., Knox, S., & Lund, M. S. (2015) · HAISA · Cited by 4
Jylänki, P., Sääkslahti, A., & Pirjo Aunio, A. (2024) · Trends in Neuroscience and Education · doi:10.1016/j.tine.2024.100227 · Cited by 4
“However, only a few studies investigate the effects of fundamental motor skill interventions on early mathematical skills [12 – 15], and no studies on mathematical problem-solving although longitudinal evidence indicates that improvements in fundamental motor skills were related to improvements in…”
BackgroundAlfaro-Chaverri, A., Miller, A., Noonan, C., Quindry, J., & Gaskill, S. E. (2026) · Sports Medicine and Health Science · doi:10.1016/j.smhs.2025.03.011 · Cited by 3
Saeed, N., Shah, R., & Khan, D. I. (2023) · Sir Syed Journal of Education & Social Research (SJESR) · doi:10.36902/sjesr-vol6-iss1-2023(61-67 · Cited by 3
Qiao, M., Yu, L., Shi, J., Wang, X., Li, R., Wan, Z., & Lu, D. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1477001 · Cited by 3
Effects of aerobic exercise on memory and its neurobiological mechanism
Jinhong, K. E., & Wang, B. (2021) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2022.00115 · Cited by 5
“元分析发现, 有 2/3 的研究表明有氧运动对 工作记忆有显著的促进作用 (Rathore & Lom, 2017), 其中多数研究发现可以提升记忆广度任务 中正确回忆数字或字母的个数(Albinet et al., 2016; Basso et al., 2015; Budde et al., 2010; Chang et al., 2011; Fisher et al., 2011), 少数研究发现可以缩短 反应时(Chen et al., 2014; Hogan et al., 2013)。在一 个研究中, 老年人早晨进行 30 分钟, 强度为 65% 至…”
Physical Fitness and Child Development: Interrelations in Preschool Age
Gavrilova, M., Veraksa, А., Leonov, S., & Musálek, M. (2022) · Early childhood research and education · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-05524-9_7 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Fisher, A., Boyle, J. M., Paton, J. Y., Tomporowski, P., Watson, C., McColl, J. H., & Reilly, J. J.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- University of Strathclyde (GB)
- University of Glasgow (GB)
- University of Georgia (US)
- Glasgow City Council (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Reilly, John J
- Venue
- BMC Pediatrics
- Published
- 2011-10-28
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 97-97
- ISSN
- 1471-2431 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3217848
- OpenAlex
- W2039422753
- Cited by
- 127
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 5.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- BMC Pediatrics (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Strathprints: The University of Strathclyde institutional repository (University of Strathclyde) (acceptedVersion)
- ENLIGHTEN (Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling Islam) (acceptedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Physical Activity and Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Children's Physical and Motor Development
- Social Sciences › Education › Physical Education and Pedagogy
- Keywords
- physical education intervention, cognitive function, young children, physical activity and cognition, test-retest reliability, outcome measure selection, spatial working memory, attention, elementary school students, accelerometer-measured activity
- MeSH terms
- Child, Cognition, Physical Exertion, Female, Humans, Male, Neuropsychological Tests, Physical Education and Training, Pilot Projects
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