Effects of physical activity on executive functions, attention and academic performance in preadolescent children: a meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Objectives The aim of this meta-analysis was to provide a systematic review of intervention studies that investigated the effects of physical activity on multiple domains of executive functions, attention and academic performance in preadolescent children (6-12 years of age). In addition, a systematic quantification of the effects of physical activity on these domains is provided. Design Systematic review and meta-analysis. Methods Searches of electronic databases and examining relevant reviews between 2000 and April 2017 resulted in 31 intervention studies meeting the inclusion criteria. Four subdomains of executive functions (inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility and planning), three subdomains of attention (selective, divided and sustained) and three subdomains of academic performance (mathematics, spelling and reading) were distinguished. Effects for different study designs (acute physical activity or longitudinal physical activity programs), type of physical activity (aerobic or cognitively engaging) and duration of intervention were examined separately. Results Acute physical activity has a positive effect on attention (g=0.43; 95% CI=0.09, 0.77; 6 studies), while longitudinal physical activity programs has a positive effect on executive functions (g=0.24; 95% CI=0.09, 0.39; 12 studies), attention (g=0.90; 95% CI=0.56, 1.24; 1 study) and academic performance (g=0.26; 95% CI=0.02, 0.49; 3 studies). The effects did depend on the subdomain. Conclusions Positive…
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Claims the paper makes
10 of 41 cited sources checked · 4 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Previous meta-analyses have shown that enhanced cognitive functioning as a result of physical activity is most clearly seen in executive functions and attention.
“Within the preadolescent age range, previous meta-analyses have shown that enhanced cognitive functioning as a result of physical activity is most clearly seen in executive functions 12 and attention.8”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites [12] 12. Verburgh L, Königs M, Scherder EJ et al. Physical exercise and executive functions in preadolescent children, adolescents and young adults: a meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med 2014; 48(12):973-979. source
- cites [8] 8. Chang Y, Labban J, Gapin J et al. The effects of acute exercise on cognitive per- formance: a meta-analysis. Brain Res 2012; 1453:87-101. source
Section 2.4 reports that attention tasks were among the categories with the largest benefits immediately after acute exercise, supporting the attention portion of the claim. But Section 2.1 says most included studies tested young adults and only nine tested participants aged 5–20; the reported attention finding is not specific to preadolescents. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Several randomized controlled trials have become available, aimed at investigating the effects of acute physical activity and longitudinal physical activity programs on cognitive functioning in preadolescent children.
“More recently, several randomized controlled trials have become available, aimed at investigating the effects of acute physical activity and longitudinal physical activity programs on cognitive functioning in preadolescent children.20,25,26”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked- cites [20] 20. *Schmidt M, Jäger K, Egger F et al. Cognitively engaging chronic physical activity, but not aerobic exercise, affects executive functions in primary school children: a group-randomized controlled trial. J Sport Exerc Psychol 2015; 37(6):575-591. source
- cites [25] 25. *Altenburg TM, Chinapaw MJ, Singh AS. Effects of one versus two bouts of mod- erate intensity physical activity on selective attention during a school morning in Dutch primary schoolchildren: a randomized controlled trial. J Sci Med Sport 2016; 19(10):820-824. source
- cites [26] 26. *Hillman CH, Pontifex MB, Castelli DM et al. Effects of the FITKids random- ized controlled trial on executive control and brain function. Pediatr 2014; 134(4):e1063-e1071. source
The Discussion describes FITKids as a 9-month randomized physical-activity intervention that assessed executive control in children, and it discusses other trials of activity programs. This supports the longitudinal-program portion of the sentence, but our copy does not establish the portion about randomized trials of acute physical activity. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Interpretationcitation
The finding that cognitively engaging physical activity has a greater effect on executive functions is supported by a recent meta-analysis that compared the effects of different types of longitudinal physical activity programs on cognitive functioning in children and adolescents.
“This finding is supported by the recent meta-analysis that compared the effects of different types of longitudinal physical activity programs on cognitive functioning in children and adolescents.22”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [22] 22. Vazou S, Pesce C, Lakes K et al. More than one road leads to Rome: a narrative review and meta-analysis of physical activity intervention effects on cognition in youth. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol 2016:1-26. source
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Findingown data
The effects of physical activity on executive functions, attention and academic performance depend on the subdomain.
“The effects did depend on the subdomain.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Longitudinal physical activity programs have a positive effect on academic performance (g = 0.26; 95% CI = 0.02, 0.49; 3 studies).
“academic performance (g = 0.26; 95% CI = 0.02, 0.49; 3 studies)”
- Also stated in: § 3. Results · plain
“An overall small to moderate positive effect was found on academic performance [Hedges' g = 0.26; 95% CI = 0.02, 0.49; p = 0.032].”
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
“a positive small to moderate effect on academic performance (ES = 0.26)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § 3. Results · plain
- Findingown data
Acute physical activity has a positive effect on attention (g = 0.43; 95% CI = 0.09, 0.77; 6 studies).
“Acute physical activity has a positive effect on attention (g = 0.43; 95% CI = 0.09, 0.77; 6 studies)”
- Also stated in: § 3. Results · plain
“Overall, acute physical activity resulted in a small to moderate improvement of selective attention [Hedges' g = 0.43; 95% CI = 0.09, 0.77; p = 0.013].”
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
“The meta-analysis showed that acute physical activity has a positive small to moderate effect on attention (ES = 0.43)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § 3. Results · plain
- Findingown data
Longitudinal physical activity programs have a positive effect on executive functions (g = 0.24; 95% CI = 0.09, 0.39; 12 studies).
“longitudinal physical activity programs has a positive effect on executive functions (g = 0.24; 95% CI = 0.09, 0.39; 12 studies)”
- Also stated in: § 3. Results · plain
“A small to moderate positive effect was found for longitudinal physical activity programs on executive functions [Hedges' g = 0.24; 95% CI = 0.09, 0.39; p = 0.001] (s = 12, k = 15).”
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
“longitudinal physical activity programs has a positive small to moderate effect on executive functions (ES = 0.24)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § 3. Results · plain
- Findingown data
Longitudinal physical activity programs have a positive effect on attention (g = 0.90; 95% CI = 0.56, 1.24; 1 study).
“attention (g = 0.90; 95% CI = 0.56, 1.24; 1 study)”
- Also stated in: § 3. Results · plain
“One study (k = 2) found a large positive effect of a longitudinal physical activity program on selective attention [Hedges' g = 0.90; 95% CI = 0.56, 1.24; p = < 0.001].”
- Also stated in: § 4. Discussion · plain
“a positive large effect on attention (ES = 0.90)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § 3. Results · plain
- Findingown data
A small to moderate positive effect was found for longitudinal physical activity programs on working memory [g = 0.36; 95% CI = 0.10, 0.62; p = 0.007] (s = 6, k = 8).
“Investigating the subdomains of executive functions, a small to moderate positive effect was found for working memory [Hedges' g = 0.36; 95% CI = 0.10, 0.62; p = 0.007] (s = 6, k = 8)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There were considerable differences between the effect sizes derived from the individual studies [I2 = 84%; Q = 286.87; p < 0.001].
“There were however considerable differences between the ESs derived from the individual studies [I 2 = 84%; Q = 286.87;p < 0.001].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Cognitively engaging longitudinal physical activity programs have a moderate to large positive effect on executive functions (ES = 0.53) in preadolescent children.
“Interestingly, the longitudinal physical activity programs that focused on cognitively engaging physical activity (s = 11) showed a moderate to large positive effect (ES = 0.53), while aerobic physical activity showed a small to moderate positive effect (ES = 0.29).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Of the studies that investigated acute physical activity, 15 studies (k = 24) focused on aerobic physical activity, resulting in a small to moderate positive effect [g = 0.28; 95% CI = 0.09, 0.46; p = 0.004].
“f the studies that investigated the effects of acute physical activity, 15 studies (k = 24) focused on the effects of aerobic physical activity, resulting in a small to moderate positive effect [Hedges' g = 0.28; 95% CI = 0.09, 0.46; p = 0.004].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Five studies (k = 5) focused on the effects of cognitively engaging physical activity which showed no significant effect.
“Five studies (k = 5) focused on the effects of cognitively engaging physical activity which showed no significant effect.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Acute physical activity has a positive effect on inhibition (ES = 0.28) in preadolescent children.
“The combined finding that acute physical activity has an effect on attention and inhibition (ES = 0.28), while no effect on other domains of executive functions (e.g.working memory, cognitive flexibility and planning) supports the hypothesis that attentional problems in children are related with specific domains of executive functions, particularly with inhibition.10”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
A moderate to large positive effect was found for cognitively engaging physical activity within longitudinal programs [g = 0.53; 95% CI = 0.14, 0.92; p = 0.008].
“A small to moderate positive effect was found for aerobic [Hedges' g = 0.29; 95% CI = 0.13, 0.45; p = 0.001] and a moderate to large positive effect for cognitively engaging physical activity [Hedges' g = 0.53; 95% CI = 0.14, 0.92; p = 0.008].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Longitudinal physical activity programs have a positive small to moderate effect on executive functions (ES = 0.24) in preadolescent children.
“For longitudinal physical activity programs (i.e.continuous regular physical activity over several weeks), a positive small to moderate effect on executive functions (ES = 0.24) was found, which is slightly lower than the positive small to moderate effect on executive functions (ES = 0.46) found in a previous meta-analysis including both children and adolescents.22”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No significant effects of longitudinal physical activity were found for spelling (s = 1, k = 1).
“However, investigating each distinguished subdomain of academic performance, no significant effects of longitudinal physical activity were found for mathematics (s = 1, k = 2), 59 reading (s = 2, k = 3) 58,59 and spelling (s = 1, k = 1).58”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Three studies (k = 4) focused on the effects of a longitudinal physical activity program on academic performance, with minor differences between the studies [I2 = 39%; Q = 4.91; p = 0.179].
“Three studies (k = 4) focused on the effects of a longitudinal physical activity program on academic performance, with minor differences between the studies [I 2 = 39%; Q = 4.91; p 0.179].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the current meta-analysis, no effect was found on any of the subdomains of academic performance (mathematics, reading, spelling).
“while no effect was found on any of the subdomains (mathematics, reading and spelling) in the current meta-analysis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No studies investigated the effects of acute physical activity on planning.
“No studies investigated the effects of acute physical activity on planning.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
No significant effects were found for acute physical activity on mathematics (s = 4, k = 5).
“No significant effects were found for mathematics (s = 4, k = 5) 42,45,46,52 and reading (s = 3, k = 4).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
A small to moderate positive effect was found for aerobic physical activity within longitudinal programs [g = 0.29; 95% CI = 0.13, 0.45; p = 0.001].
“A small to moderate positive effect was found for aerobic [Hedges' g = 0.29; 95% CI = 0.13, 0.45; p = 0.001] and a moderate to large positive effect for cognitively engaging physical activity [Hedges' g = 0.53; 95% CI = 0.14, 0.92; p = 0.008].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No significant effect was found for acute physical activity on cognitive flexibility (s = 5, k = 8).
“No significant effect was found for working memory (s = 4, k = 6) or cognitive flexibility (s = 5, k = 8).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
No overall significant effect was found for acute physical activity on academic performance (s = 4, k = 5), with minor differences between the studies [I2 = 26%; Q = 5.39; p = 0.250].
“No overall significant effect was found for acute physical activity on academic performance (s = 4, k = 5), with minor differences between the studies [I 2 = 26%; Q = 5.39; p = 0.250].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No significant effects of longitudinal physical activity programs were found for planning (s = 4, k = 4).
“No significant effects of longitudinal physical activity programs were found for inhibition (s = 6, k = 7) 20,26,56,57,65,66 and planning (s = 4, k = 4).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No studies focused on sustained or divided attention.
“No studies focused on sustained or divided attention.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
A small positive effect was found for longitudinal physical activity programs on cognitive flexibility [g = 0.18; 95% CI = 0.01, 0.35; p = 0.040] (s = 3, k = 4).
“and a small positive effect was found for cognitive flexibility [Hedges' g = 0.18; 95% CI = 0.01, 0.35; p = 0.040] (s = 3, k = 4).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
A small to moderate positive effect of acute physical activity was found for inhibition [g = 0.28; 95% CI = 0.01, 0.56; p = 0.042].
“When looking at the subdomains of executive functions, a small to moderate positive effect of acute physical activity was found for inhibition [Hedges' g = 0.28; 95% CI = 0.01, 0.56; p = 0.042].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No significant effects were found for acute physical activity on reading (s = 3, k = 4).
“No significant effects were found for mathematics (s = 4, k = 5) 42,45,46,52 and reading (s = 3, k = 4).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No significant effect was found for acute physical activity on executive functions (s = 9, k = 15).
“No significant effect was found for acute physical activity on executive functions (s = 9, k = 15).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Duration (in minutes) had no significant influence on the effects of acute physical activity (β < 0.001; p = 907).
“Duration (in minutes) had no significant influence on the effects of acute physical activity ( < 0.001; p = 907).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Duration (in weeks) had no significant influence on the effects of longitudinal physical activity programs (β < 0.001; p = 0.952).
“Duration (in weeks) had no significant influence on the effects of longitudinal physical activity programs ( < 0.001; p = 0.952).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
A small to moderate effect was found for spelling [g = 0.25; 95% CI = 0.03, 0.48; p = 0.030] (s = 2, k = 3).
“Investigating each distinguished subdomain of academic performance, a small to moderate effect was found for spelling [Hedges' g = 0.25; 95% CI = 0.03, 0.48; p = 0.030] (s = 2, k = 3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Acute physical activity has a positive small to moderate effect on attention (ES = 0.43) in preadolescent children.
“The positive small to moderate effect of acute physical activity on attention (ES = 0.43) is comparable with the small to moderate effect found in the meta-analysis by Chang et al. 8 (ES = 0.42).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Longitudinal physical activity programs resulted in an overall small to moderate improvement of cognitive functions [g = 0.37; 95% CI = 0.20, 0.55; p ≤ 0.001].
“Longitudinal physical activity programs resulted in an overall small to moderate improvement of cognitive functions [Hedges' g = 0.37; 95% CI = 0.20, 0.55; p ≤ 0.001].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Aerobic longitudinal physical activity programs have a small to moderate positive effect on executive functions (ES = 0.29) in preadolescent children.
“Interestingly, the longitudinal physical activity programs that focused on cognitively engaging physical activity (s = 11) showed a moderate to large positive effect (ES = 0.53), while aerobic physical activity showed a small to moderate positive effect (ES = 0.29).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Longitudinal physical activity programs have a positive small to moderate effect on academic performance (ES = 0.26) in preadolescent children.
“With regard to academic performance, a small to moderate effect of longitudinal physical activity programs was found (ES = 0.26).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No significant effects of longitudinal physical activity were found for mathematics (s = 1, k = 2).
“However, investigating each distinguished subdomain of academic performance, no significant effects of longitudinal physical activity were found for mathematics (s = 1, k = 2), 59 reading (s = 2, k = 3) 58,59 and spelling (s = 1, k = 1).58”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
No significant effect was found for acute physical activity on working memory (s = 4, k = 6).
“No significant effect was found for working memory (s = 4, k = 6) or cognitive flexibility (s = 5, k = 8).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
No significant effects of longitudinal physical activity were found for reading (s = 2, k = 3).
“However, investigating each distinguished subdomain of academic performance, no significant effects of longitudinal physical activity were found for mathematics (s = 1, k = 2), 59 reading (s = 2, k = 3) 58,59 and spelling (s = 1, k = 1).58”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
No significant effects of longitudinal physical activity programs were found for inhibition (s = 6, k = 7).
“No significant effects of longitudinal physical activity programs were found for inhibition (s = 6, k = 7) 20,26,56,57,65,66 and planning (s = 4, k = 4).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Overall, acute physical activity resulted in a small to moderate improvement of cognitive functions [g = 0.24; 95% CI = 0.08, 0.40; p = 0.004].
“Overal, acute physical activity resulted in a small to moderate improvement of cognitive functions [Hedges' g = 0.24; 95% CI = 0.08, 0.40; p = 0.004] (Table 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
MVPA is positively associated with key cognitive functions that are important for success in school.
“an expanding body of literature shows that MVPA is positively associated with key cognitive functions that are important for success in school.4”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] 4. Fedewa AL, Ahn S. The effects of physical activity and physical fitness on chil- dren's achievement and cognitive outcomes: A meta-analysis. Res Q Exerc Sport 2011; 82(3):521-535. source
- Interpretationown data
Largest effects are expected for interventions that aim for continuous regular physical activity over several weeks.
“Largest effects are expected for interventions that aim for continuous regular physical activity over several weeks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Intervention programs that implement continuous regular physical activity over several weeks are more likely to improve executive functions and academic performance than a single bout of physical activity.
“-Intervention programs that implement continuous regular physical activity over several weeks are more likely to improve executive functions and academic performance than a single bout of physical activity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Acute physical activity immediately facilitates cognitive performance by increasing the allocation of attention.
“These findings are in accordance with the hypothesis that acute physical activity immediately facilitates the cognitive performance by increasing the allocation of attention.13,14”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [13] 13. Tomporowski PD. Effects of acute bouts of exercise on cognition. Acta Psychol 2003; 112(3):297-324. source
- cites [14] 14. Audiffren M. Acute exercise and psychological functions: a cognitive-energetic approach, in Exercise and cognitive function, 1st ed., McMorris T, Tomporowski PD, Audiffren M, editors, Oxford, Wiley Online Library, 2009, p. 3-39.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
In previous meta-analyses only a few intervention studies investigated the causal effects in preadolescent children, especially those that implemented a longitudinal physical activity program.
“In these previous meta-analyses only a few intervention studies investigated the causal effects in preadolescent children, especially those intervention studies that implemented a longitudinal physical activity program.12”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [12] 12. Verburgh L, Königs M, Scherder EJ et al. Physical exercise and executive functions in preadolescent children, adolescents and young adults: a meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med 2014; 48(12):973-979. source
- Interpretationown data
Physical activity with higher cognitive engagement has a greater effect on executive functions than aerobic physical activity in preadolescent children.
“Although both types of physical activity showed beneficial effects, the current findings suggests that physical activity with a higher cognitive engagement has more effect on executive functions compared to aerobic physical activity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
For cognitively engaging physical activity, a child has to allocate a high amount of attention and cognitive effort.
“For cognitively engaging physical activity, a child has to allocate a high amount of attention and cognitive effort.23”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [23] 23. Tomporowski PD, McCullick B, Pendleton DM et al. Exercise and children's cog- nition: the role of exercise characteristics and a place for metacognition. J Sport Health Sci 2015; 4(1):47-55. source
- Premisecitation
Attentional problems in children are related with specific domains of executive functions, particularly with inhibition.
“supports the hypothesis that attentional problems in children are related with specific domains of executive functions, particularly with inhibition.10”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [10] 10. Friedman NP, Haberstick BC, Willcutt EG et al. Greater attention problems during childhood predict poorer executive functioning in late adolescence. Psychol Sci 2007; 18(10):893-900. source
- Interpretationcitation
It is unlikely that the difference between the current meta-analysis and Fedewa and Ahn's subdomain results is explained by an age difference.
“It seems unlikely that this difference is explained because of an age difference, since Fedewa and Ahn 4 found the highest ESs on academic performance for children at the elementary school level, compared with the middle and high school levels.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] 4. Fedewa AL, Ahn S. The effects of physical activity and physical fitness on chil- dren's achievement and cognitive outcomes: A meta-analysis. Res Q Exerc Sport 2011; 82(3):521-535. source
- Interpretationnone given
Interventions over several weeks that include cognitively challenging physical activities are more effective in improving cognitive performance than aerobic physical activity.
“-Interventions programs over several weeks that include cognitively challenging physical activities seem to be more effective in improving cognitive performance than aerobic physical activity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The results indicate that benefits are largest for continuous cognitively engaging physical activity over several weeks.
“The results indicate that benefits are largest for continuous cognitively engaging physical activity over several weeks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The positive small to moderate effect of acute physical activity on attention (ES = 0.43) is comparable with the small to moderate effect found in the meta-analysis by Chang et al. (ES = 0.42).
“The positive small to moderate effect of acute physical activity on attention (ES = 0.43) is comparable with the small to moderate effect found in the meta-analysis by Chang et al. 8 (ES = 0.42).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chang et al. 8
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
Including studies with different types of control conditions would limit the generalizability of the findings.
“Although this resulted in excluding only a small amount of studies, the inclusion of these studies would limit the generalizability of our findings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductreasoning
By focusing only on preadolescent children, the number of studies per subdomain of academic performance in the current meta-analysis was low.
“By focusing only on preadolescent children, the number of studies per subdomain of academic performance in the current meta-analysis was low.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Almost all studies that focused on the effects of physical activity on cognitive performance in children were conducted with moderate to vigorous intensities.
“Nevertheless, almost all studies that focused on the effects of physical activity on cognitive performance in children were conducted with mod-erate to vigorous intensities.21”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [21] 21. Pesce C. Shifting the focus from quantitative to qualitative exercise char- acteristics in exercise and cognition research. J Sport Exerc Psychol 2012; 34(6):766-786. source
- Interpretationown data
The effects of longitudinal physical activity programs on academic performance are similar to the small to moderate effects found by Fedewa and Ahn (ES = 0.27).
“These effects are similar with the small to moderate effects found by Fedewa and Ahn 4 (ES = 0.27).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] 4. Fedewa AL, Ahn S. The effects of physical activity and physical fitness on chil- dren's achievement and cognitive outcomes: A meta-analysis. Res Q Exerc Sport 2011; 82(3):521-535. source
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 11
- May combine two claims. 17
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationPhysical activities with relatively high cognitive engagement have more effect on executive functions compared to physical activities with relatively low cognitive engagement.
“Physical activities with a relatively high cognitive engagement (e.g.tennis, where children have to plan strategically, focus attention, and so forth) are suggested to have more effect on executive functions, compared to physical activities with a relatively low cognitive engagement (e.g.long distance running, which involves more automated movements).20,22”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites [20] 20. *Schmidt M, Jäger K, Egger F et al. Cognitively engaging chronic physical activity, but not aerobic exercise, affects executive functions in primary school children: a group-randomized controlled trial. J Sport Exerc Psychol 2015; 37(6):575-591. source
- cites [22] 22. Vazou S, Pesce C, Lakes K et al. More than one road leads to Rome: a narrative review and meta-analysis of physical activity intervention effects on cognition in youth. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol 2016:1-26. source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationPhysical activity enhances angiogenesis and neurogenesis in areas of the brain that support memory and learning, subsequently enhancing cognitive performance.
“This hypothesis is supported by the argue that physical activity enhances the angiogenesis 18 and neurogenesis 16 in areas of the brain that support memory and learning, subsequently enhancing cognitive performance.19”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked- cites [18] 18. Isaacs KR, Anderson BJ, Alcantara AA et al. Exercise and the brain: angiogenesis in the adult rat cerebellum after vigorous physical activity and motor skill learning. J Celeb Blood Flow Metab 1992; 12(1):110-119. source
- cites [16] 16. Dishman RK, Berthoud H, Booth FW et al. Neurobiology of exercise. Obesity 2006; 14(3):345-356. source
- cites [19] 19. Hillman CH, Buck SM, Themanson JR et al. Aerobic fitness and cognitive develop- ment: event-related brain potential and task performance indices of executive control in preadolescent children. Dev Psychol 2009; 45(1):114-129. source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAcute physical activity triggers an increase of neurotransmitters (e.g. epinephrine, dopamine, brain-derived neurotrophic factors), which enhance cognitive processes.
“From a psycho-physiological perspective, acute physical activity triggers an increase of neurotransmitters (e.g.epinephrine, dopamine, brain-derived neurotrophic factors), which are thought to enhance cognitive processes.15,16”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites [15] 15. Roig M, Nordbrandt S, Geertsen SS et al. The effects of cardiovascular exercise on human memory: a review with meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37(8):1645-1666. source
- cites [16] 16. Dishman RK, Berthoud H, Booth FW et al. Neurobiology of exercise. Obesity 2006; 14(3):345-356. source
The “Is Physical Activity Regulated?” section reports that treadmill running acutely increases dopamine release in rats. “Neurotrophic Effects” links BDNF to learning and cognition, but describes increased BDNF expression with chronic activity, not a single acute bout. The cited paper does not establish the claimed acute rise in epinephrine or that these acute chemical changes enhance cognition. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThe positive small to moderate effect of longitudinal physical activity programs on executive functions (ES = 0.24) is slightly lower than the positive small to moderate effect on executive functions (ES = 0.46) found in a previous meta-analysis including both children and adolescents.
“For longitudinal physical activity programs (i.e.continuous regular physical activity over several weeks), a positive small to moderate effect on executive functions (ES = 0.24) was found, which is slightly lower than the positive small to moderate effect on executive functions (ES = 0.46) found in a previous meta-analysis including both children and adolescents.22”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [22] 22. Vazou S, Pesce C, Lakes K et al. More than one road leads to Rome: a narrative review and meta-analysis of physical activity intervention effects on cognition in youth. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol 2016:1-26. source
The Results of Meta-Analysis (Overall Effect; page unavailable) report ES = 0.46 for overall cognitive function in children and adolescents, not specifically for executive functions. The Discussion says chronic physical activity interventions benefit cognition, but the paper does not report the claimed ES = 0.24 for longitudinal programs or make the stated comparison between the two estimates. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThe effects largely depend on different moderators, such as outcome measure, duration or effects were only found in a subgroup.
“The effects largely depend on different moderators, such as outcome measure, 40,41,45,49 duration 46 or effects were only found in a subgroup.39,41,44”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 7 sources checked- cites [40] 40. *Chen A, Yan J, Yin H et al. Effects of acute aerobic exercise on multiple aspects of executive function in preadolescent children. Psychol Sport Exerc 2014; 15(6):627-636. source
- cites [41] 41. *Drollette ES, Scudder MR, Raine LB et al. Acute exercise facilitates brain func- tion and cognition in children who need it most: an ERP study of individual differences in inhibitory control capacity. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2014; 7:53-64. source
- cites [45] 45. *Hillman CH, Pontifex MB, Raine LB et al. The effect of acute treadmill walk- ing on cognitive control and academic achievement in preadolescent children. Neuroscience 2009; 159(3):1044-1054. source
The Results (Achievement Test Performance; Task Performance; pages unavailable) show outcome-dependent effects: exercise improved reading but not spelling or arithmetic, and response accuracy but not reaction time. Accuracy improved significantly only on incongruent trials, which is a task condition rather than a subgroup of children. The paper therefore does not establish that effects were found only in a participant subgroup. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [49] 49. *Pirrie AM, Lodewyk KR. Investigating links between moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and cognitive performance in elementary school students. Ment Health Phys Act 2012; 5(1):93-98. source
- cites [46] 46. *Howie EK, Schatz J, Pate RR. Acute effects of classroom exercise breaks on exec- utive function and math performance: a dose-response study. Res Q Exerc Sport 2015; 86(3):217-224. source
- cites [39] 39. *Best JR. Exergaming immediately enhances children's executive function. Dev Psychol 2012; 48(5):1501-1510.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [44] 44. *Hill L, Williams JH, Aucott L et al. Exercising attention within the classroom. Dev Med Child Neurol 2010; 52(10):929-934. source
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataBased on the results of the current meta-analysis, positive effects were found for both acute physical activity and longitudinal physical activity programs on cognitive functions (combined executive functions, attention, and academic performance) in preadolescent children.
“Based on the results of the current meta-analysis positive effects were found for both acute physical activity as well as for longitudinal physical activity programs on cognitive functions (in the current study a combined effect of the domains executive functions, attention and academic performance) in preadolescent children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAcute physical activity has no significant effect on working memory, cognitive flexibility, or planning in preadolescent children.
“The combined finding that acute physical activity has an effect on attention and inhibition (ES = 0.28), while no effect on other domains of executive functions (e.g.working memory, cognitive flexibility and planning) supports the hypothesis that attentional problems in children are related with specific domains of executive functions, particularly with inhibition.10”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe positive effects of acute physical activity were only found for attention, while the positive effects of longitudinal physical activity programs were consistent for all domains.
“The positive effects of acute physical activity were only found for attention, while the positive effects of longitudinal physical activity programs were consistent for all domains.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationA single bout of physical activity (acute physical activity) immediately elevates the child's level of physiological arousal, which in turn facilitates cognitive performance by an increased allocation of attention.
“First, a single bout of physical activity (acute physical activity) is thought to immediately elevate the child's level of physiological arousal, which in turn facilitates the cognitive performance by an increased allocation of attention.13,14”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [13] 13. Tomporowski PD. Effects of acute bouts of exercise on cognition. Acta Psychol 2003; 112(3):297-324. source
- cites [14] 14. Audiffren M. Acute exercise and psychological functions: a cognitive-energetic approach, in Exercise and cognitive function, 1st ed., McMorris T, Tomporowski PD, Audiffren M, editors, Oxford, Wiley Online Library, 2009, p. 3-39. source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationMeta-analyses on studies allowing investigation of causal relationships showed significant positive effects of physical activity on children's executive functions (ES = 0.57; 6-12 years).
“Meta-analyses on studies allowing the investigation of causal relationships showed significant positive effects of physical activity on children's executive functions (ES = 0.57; 6-12 years) 12”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [12] 12. Verburgh L, Königs M, Scherder EJ et al. Physical exercise and executive functions in preadolescent children, adolescents and young adults: a meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med 2014; 48(12):973-979. source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationMeta-analyses on studies allowing investigation of causal relationships showed significant positive effects of physical activity on children's academic performance (ES = 0.27; 3-18 years).
“and academic performance (ES = 0.27; 3-18 years).4”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] 4. Fedewa AL, Ahn S. The effects of physical activity and physical fitness on chil- dren's achievement and cognitive outcomes: A meta-analysis. Res Q Exerc Sport 2011; 82(3):521-535. source
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataPositive effects were found for physical activity on executive functions, attention and academic performance in preadolescent children.
“Positive effects were found for physical activity on executive functions, attention and academic performance in preadolescent children.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).
PremisecitationCognitively engaging physical activity is more beneficial for cognition than simple aerobic physical activity.
“More recently, other researchers argue that instead of 'simple' aerobic physical activity (i.e.physical activity that is intended to improve cardiovascular performance), cognitively engaging physical activity (i.e.physical activity that is cognitively challenging) is more beneficial for cognition.[20][21][22]”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [20][21][22]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationA previous meta-analysis showed a positive association between physical activity and overall cognitive functioning in children (ES = 0.21; 8-10 years).
“The results from a previous meta-analysis showed a positive association between physical activity and overall cognitive functioning in children (effect size [ES] = 0.21; 8-10 years).24”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [24] 24. Sibley BA, Etnier JL. The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2003; 15(3):243-256. source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe positive effects of acute physical activity on attention are expected to increase the time children are engaged in academic subjects, leading to better academic performance in the long term.
“In addition, the positive effects on attention are expected to increase the time children are engaged in academic subjects, 67 with better academic performance in the long term.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [67] 67. Duncan GJ, Dowsett CJ, Claessens A et al. School readiness and later achievement. Dev Psychol 2007; 43(6):1428. source
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningFor acute physical activity, no effect was found in the current meta-analysis, while a moderate to large positive effect (ES = 0.57; s = 2) was found in Verburgh et al. The reason for this difference is likely due to the inclusion of a larger number of studies in the current meta-analysis (s = 9) which may reflect a more reliable result.
“For acute physical activity (i.e. a single bout of physical activity), no effect was found in the current meta-analysis, while a moderate to large positive effect (ES = 0.57; s = 2) was found in Verburgh et al. 12 The reason for this difference is likely due to the inclusion of a larger number of studies in the current meta-analysis (s = 9) which may reflect a more reliable result.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [12] 12. Verburgh L, Königs M, Scherder EJ et al. Physical exercise and executive functions in preadolescent children, adolescents and young adults: a meta-analysis. Br J Sports Med 2014; 48(12):973-979. source
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe funnel plot resembled a funnel and the Egger's linear regression method was non-significant for executive functions, attention and academic performance, indicating no evidence of publication bias.
“The funnel plot resembled a funnel and the Egger's linear regression method was non-significant for executive functions, attention and academic performance indication that there was no evidence of publication bias.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataA single bout of physical activity can be a successful strategy to stimulate attention, but not executive functions or academic performance, in children between the age of 6 and 12 years.
“-Single bout of physical activity can be a successful strategy to stimulate attention, but not executive functions or academic performance in children between the age of 6 and 12 years.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenThe current meta-analysis only included studies that were published after 2000 and that contained a control condition with no or a lower amount of physical activity.
“Secondly, the current meta-analysis only included studies that were published after 2000 and that contained a control condition with no or a lower amount of physical activity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenThere are additional moderators not included in the current meta-analysis that might have an effect on the physiological responses of physical activity.
“there are additional moderators not included in the current meta-analysis that might have an effect on the physiological responses of physical activity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThere is an inverted-U effect with MVPA showing the largest effect on cognition, whereas light and vigorous physical activity show smaller effects.
“It has been suggested that there is an inverted-U effect with MVPA showing the largest effect on cognition, whereas light and vigorous physical activity showing smaller effects.69”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [69] 69. McMorris T, Hale BJ. Differential effects of differing intensities of acute exercise on speed and accuracy of cognition: a meta-analytical investigation. Brain Cogn 2012; 80(3):338-351. source
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataThe mean PEDro score of included studies was 4.3 (below adequate) with a range between 2 and 7.
“The mean PEDro score was 4.3 (below adequate) and had a range between 2 (below adequate) and 7 (adequate) (Table 3S, see Supplementary material).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe meta-analysis by Fedewa and Ahn found the highest effect on mathematics and closely followed by reading.
“Interestingly, the meta-analysis by Fedewa and Ahn 4 found the highest effect on mathematics and closely followed by reading, while no effect was found on any of the subdomains (mathematics, reading and spelling) in the current meta-analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] 4. Fedewa AL, Ahn S. The effects of physical activity and physical fitness on chil- dren's achievement and cognitive outcomes: A meta-analysis. Res Q Exerc Sport 2011; 82(3):521-535. source
The paper relies on this without support.
It is thought that by specifically selecting physical activities with a relatively high cognitive engagement, performance on cognitive functions will increase.
“It is thought that by specifically selecting physical activities with a relatively high cognitive engagement, performance on cognitive functions will increase.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
A growing body of literature has investigated the effects of physical activity on academic performance, and the results are widely debated.
“A growing body of literature has investigated the effects of PA (school-based, class-based, and extracurricular PA) on academic performance, and the results are widely debated.”
From The Effects of Physical Activity on Academic Performance in School-Aged Children: A Systematic Review (2023) · cites this paper as [20]
The Introduction describes an expanding literature on physical activity and academic performance, while the Results and Discussion report different findings across intervention durations and compared with an earlier meta-analysis. That supports the claim that findings vary, but the paper does not establish that they are widely debated or document the full stated range of school-based, class-based, and extracurricular activity. The indexed passages provide section labels but no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredBoth acute exercise and long-term exercise programs exert a moderate positive effect on children's executive function and attention, and a small positive effect on academic performance.
“De Greeff et al. (2018) observed that both acute exercise and long-term exercise programs exert a moderate positive effect on children’s executive function and attention, as well as a small positive effect on academic performance.”
From The impact of physical activity on academic performance in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis (2026) · cites this paper as De Greeff et al., 2018
The Discussion reports positive effects of acute activity on attention and of longitudinal programs on executive functions, attention, and academic performance. But it reports no effect of acute activity on executive functions, and the effect sizes differ from the claim: longitudinal attention had a large effect (ES = 0.90), while longitudinal executive functions had a small-to-moderate effect (ES = 0.24). The cited passage does not report a small academic-performance effect for acute exercise. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDe Greeff et al. supported a positive effect of physical activity on executive functions and academic performance, with the largest effects seen with interventions implementing continuous regular physical activity over several weeks.
“De Greeff et al. [20] supported this positive effect of PA on executive functions (inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and planning) and academic performance, and stated that largest effects are seen with interventions that implement continuous regular PA over several weeks.”
From The Effects of Physical Activity on Academic Performance in School-Aged Children: A Systematic Review (2023) · cites this paper as [20]
Chronic physical activity showed a medium positive effect on academic achievement.
“Chronic physical activity showed a medium positive effect on academic achievement”
From Physical Activity and Academic Achievement: An Umbrella Review (2020) · cites this paper as [33]
Acute physical activity did not demonstrate benefits on academic achievement (null effect).
“acute physical activity did not demonstrate benefits.”
From Physical Activity and Academic Achievement: An Umbrella Review (2020) · cites this paper as [33]
The effects of physical activity on reading were null, small, or medium across meta-analyses.
“for reading, null [28,33,34,35], small [31,39], or medium [27] effects were found”
From Physical Activity and Academic Achievement: An Umbrella Review (2020) · cites this paper as [33]
Mathematics was the subject where positive associations with physical activity were found with more consistency.
“Mathematics was the subject where positive associations were found with more consistency [27,31,33,36,39,52,61].”
From Physical Activity and Academic Achievement: An Umbrella Review (2020) · cites this paper as [33]
The effects of physical activity on mathematics were null, small, or medium across meta-analyses.
“The effects of PA on mathematics were null [23,24,28,33,34,35], small [39], or medium [27,31,36].”
From Physical Activity and Academic Achievement: An Umbrella Review (2020) · cites this paper as [33]
For spelling, acute physical activity had a null effect.
“and another which assessed acute PA [33], as well as a null effect from chronic PA [33]”
From Physical Activity and Academic Achievement: An Umbrella Review (2020) · cites this paper as [33]
For spelling, chronic physical activity had a null effect.
“as well as a null effect from chronic PA [33]”
From Physical Activity and Academic Achievement: An Umbrella Review (2020) · cites this paper as [33]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Discussion misstates the number of cognitively engaging longitudinal studies
MinorThe discussion assigns 11 studies to cognitively engaging longitudinal activity, whereas the results assign five to that category and 11 to aerobic activity.
“Interestingly, the longitudinal physical activity programs that focused on cognitively engaging physical activity (s = 11) showed a moderate to large positive effect (ES = 0.53), while aerobic physical activity showed a small to moderate positive effect (ES = 0.29).”
“Investigating the type of physical activity within studies that implemented a longitudinal physical activity program, 11 studies (k = 12) focused on aerobic physical activity 20,26,55,56,[59][60][61][62][63][64][65] and five studies (k = 6) focused on cognitively engaging physical activity.57,58,61,63,66”
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- Authors
- de Greeff, J. W., Bosker, R. J., Oosterlaan, J., Visscher, C., & Hartman, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Groningen (NL)
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- University Medical Center Groningen (NL)
- Venue
- Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2018-05
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 501-507
- ISSN
- 1440-2440 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2761700625
- Cited by
- 841
- References
- 77
- Citations by year
- 2026: 88 · 2025: 115 · 2024: 126 · 2023: 127 · 2022: 126 · 2021: 109 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 13 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 4.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of science and medicine in sport (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Amsterdam UMC (VU Amsterdam) - Institutional Repository (publishedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Pure Amsterdam UMC (submittedVersion)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- VU Research Portal (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Physical Activity and Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Children's Physical and Motor Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- physical activity, executive function, attention, academic performance, preadolescents, inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility, planning, selective attention, divided attention, sustained attention, mathematics, spelling, reading, acute exercise, aerobic exercise
- MeSH terms
- Academic Performance, Attention, Child, Female, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Time Factors, Exercise, Executive Function
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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