Cited by 498Statistical Methods in Clinical TrialsAdvanced Causal Inference TechniquesMeta-analysis and systematic reviews

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 51 of the 52 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

The risks and rewards of covariate adjustment in randomized trials: an assessment of 12 outcomes from 8 studies

Open access

Kahan, Brennan C, Jairath, Vipul, Doré, Caroline J, Morris, Tim P·2014·Trials

DOI 10.1186/1745-6215-15-139PMC PMC4022337

Open this paper in CoChat — free account Open PDF

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Adjustment for prognostic covariates can lead to increased power in the analysis of randomized trials. However, adjusted analyses are not often performed in practice. METHODS: We used simulation to examine the impact of covariate adjustment on 12 outcomes from 8 studies across a range of therapeutic areas. We assessed (1) how large an increase in power can be expected in practice; and (2) the impact of adjustment for covariates that are not prognostic. RESULTS: Adjustment for known prognostic covariates led to large increases in power for most outcomes. When power was set to 80% based on an unadjusted analysis, covariate adjustment led to a median increase in power to 92.6% across the 12 outcomes (range 80.6 to 99.4%). Power was increased to over 85% for 8 of 12 outcomes, and to over 95% for 5 of 12 outcomes. Conversely, the largest decrease in power from adjustment for covariates that were not prognostic was from 80% to 78.5%. CONCLUSIONS: Adjustment for known prognostic covariates can lead to substantial increases in power, and should be routinely incorporated into the analysis of randomized trials. The potential benefits of adjusting for a small number of possibly prognostic covariates in trials with moderate or large sample sizes far outweigh the risks of doing so, and so should also be considered.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1186/1745-6215-15-139

Cites

51 of 51 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Figure 1 Simulation results for ‘underpowered’ trials. Change in power through covariate adjustment as compared with unadjusted analysis for ‘underpowered’ trials (where an unadjusted analysis gives 50% power).CC BY · PubMed Central

Figure 2 Simulation results for ‘adequately powered’ trials. Change in power through covariate adjustment as compared with unadjusted analysis for ‘adequately powered’ trials (where an unadjusted analysis gives 80% power).CC BY · PubMed Central

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

SPIRIT 2013 explanation and elaboration: guidance for protocols of clinical trials
Chan, A.-W., Tetzlaff, J. M., Gotzsche, P. C., Altman, D. G., Mann, H., Berlin, J. A., Dickersin, K., Hrobjartsson, A., Schulz, K. F., Parulekar, W. R., et al. (2013) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.e7586 · Cited by 6,251
Sequential treatment assignment with balancing for prognostic factors in the controlled clinical trial
Pocock, S. J., & Simon, R. (1975) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2529712 · Cited by 2,350
Subgroup analysis and other (mis)uses of baseline data in clinical trials
Assmann, S. F., Pocock, S. J., Enos, L. E., & Kasten, L. E. (2000) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(00)02039-0 · Cited by 1,167
Subgroup analysis, covariate adjustment and baseline comparisons in clinical trial reporting: current practiceand problems.
Pocock, S. J., Assmann, S. E., Enos, L. E., & Kasten, L. E. (2002) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.1296 · Cited by 1,077
Minimization: A new method of assigning patients to treatment and control groups
Taves, D. R. (1974) · Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1002/cpt1974155443 · Cited by 891
Intrapleural Use of Tissue Plasminogen Activator and DNase in Pleural Infection
Rahman, N. M., Maskell, N. A., West, A., Teoh, R., Arnold, A., Mackinlay, C., Peckham, D. G., Davies, C., Ali, N. J., Kinnear, W. J. M., et al. (2011) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa1012740 · Cited by 860
Self-citation
Prognostic modelling with logistic regression analysis: a comparison of selection and estimation methods in small data sets
Steyerberg, E. W., Eijkemans, M. J. C., Harrell, F. E., & Habbema, J. D. F. (2000) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0258(20000430)19:8 · Cited by 789
ANCOVA versus change from baseline had more power in randomized studies and more bias in nonrandomized studies
Van Breukelen, G. J. P. (2006) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2006.02.007 · Cited by 765
Effect of an Indwelling Pleural Catheter vs Chest Tube and Talc Pleurodesis for Relieving Dyspnea in Patients With Malignant Pleural Effusion
Davies, H. E., Mishra, E. K., Kahan, B. C., Wrightson, J., Stanton, A. E., Guhan, A., Davies, C. W. H., Grayez, J., Harrison, R. N., Prasad, A., et al. (2012) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2012.5535 · Cited by 654
Self-citation
The method of minimization for allocation to clinical trials
Scott, N. W., McPherson, G. C., Ramsay, C. R., & Campbell, M. K. (2002) · Controlled Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/s0197-2456(02)00242-8 · Cited by 651 · cited 1×
“Patients were randomized using minimization [22-25]; stratification factors were: the size of the pleural effusion at baseline; whether the infection was hospital-acquired, and the presence of purulent pleural fluid.”
Method

Show all 52 references

Sorted by citations

Items 201–300 of 498

Neuronally enriched microvesicle RNAs are differentially expressed in the serums of Parkinson’s patients
Aguilar, M. A., Ebanks, S., Markus, H., Lewis, M. M., Midya, V., Vrana, K. E., Huang, X., Hall, M. A., & Kawasawa, Y. I. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1145923 · Cited by 10
Effects and mechanisms of supramaximal high-intensity interval training on extrapulmonary manifestations in people with and without chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD-HIIT): study protocol for a multi-centre, randomized controlled trial
Jakobsson, J., Burtin, C., Hedlund, M., Boraxbekk, C., Westman, J., Karalija, N., Stål, P., Sandström, T., Ruttens, D., Gosker, H. R., et al. (2024) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-024-08481-3 · Cited by 11
Sample size estimation for stratified individual and cluster randomized trials with binary outcomes
Kennedy‐Shaffer, L., & Hughes, M. D. (2020) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.8492 · Cited by 10
Affirmation on the go: A proof‐of‐concept for text message delivery of values affirmation in education
Manke, K. J., Brady, S. T., Baker, M. D., & Cohen, G. L. (2021) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.12435 · Cited by 10
Individual participant data meta‐analysis versus aggregate data meta‐analysis: A case study in eczema and food allergy prevention
Vogt, E. V., Cro, S., Cornelius, V. R., Williams, H. C., Askie, L. M., Phillips, R., Kelleher, M. M., & Boyle, R. J. (2021) · Clinical & Experimental Allergy · doi:10.1111/cea.14085 · Cited by 10
Bias was reduced in an open-label trial through the removal of subjective elements from the outcome definition
Kahan, B. C., Doré, C. J., Murphy, M. F., & Jairath, V. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2016.05.008 · Cited by 10
Self-citation
Telemedicine Referral to Improve Access to Specialty Care for Preschool Children in Rural Alaska: A Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial
Robler, S. K., Platt, A. C., Turner, E. L., Gallo, J. J., Labrique, A. B., Hofstetter, P., Inglis-Jenson, M., Jenson, C. D., Hicks, K. L., Wang, N., et al. (2023) · Ear and Hearing · doi:10.1097/aud.0000000000001372 · Cited by 9
Analysing cluster randomised controlled trials using GLMM, GEE1, GEE2, and QIF: results from four case studies
Offorha, B. C., Walters, S. J., & Jacques, R. (2023) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-023-02107-z · Cited by 9
Single- and Multilevel Perspectives on Covariate Selection in Randomized Intervention Studies on Student Achievement
Stallasch, S. E., Lüdtke, O., Artelt, C., Hedges, L. V., & Brunner, M. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09898-7 · Cited by 9
Multilevel network meta-regression for general likelihoods: synthesis of individual and aggregate data with applications to survival analysis
Phillippo, D., Dias, S., Ades, A. E., & Welton, N. J. (2025) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (Statistics in Society) · doi:10.1093/jrsssa/qnaf169 · Cited by 9
Impact of cognitive training on claims‐based diagnosed dementia over 20 years: evidence from the ACTIVE study
Coe, N. B., Miller, K. E. M., Sun, C., Taggert, E., Gross, A. L., Jones, R. N., Felix, C., Albert, M., Rebok, G. W., Marsiske, M., et al. (2026) · Alzheimer s & Dementia Translational Research & Clinical Interventions · doi:10.1002/trc2.70197 · Cited by 10
Statistical analysis of Likert-based ordinal scales: a guide for clinical trialists
Al-Jaishi, A. A., Cuerden, M. S., Luo, B., Roshanov, P. S., & Garg, A. X. (2026) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-026-02793-5 · Cited by 14
Optimising pain management in children with acute otitis media through a primary care-based multifaceted educational intervention: study protocol for a cluster randomised controlled trial
van Uum, R. T., Venekamp, R. P., Sjoukes, A., van de Pol, A. C., de Wit, G. A., Schilder, A. G., & Damoiseaux, R. A. M. J. (2018) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-018-2880-4 · Cited by 10
Data-driven covariate selection for confounding adjustment by focusing on the stability of the effect estimator.
Loh, W. W., & Ren, D. (2023) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/met0000564 · Cited by 9
Covariate Adjustment in Chronic Pain Trials: An Oft-Missed Opportunity
Langford, D. J., Sharma, S., McDermott, M. P., Beeram, A., Besherat, S., France, F. O., Mark, R., Park, M., Nishtar, M., Turk, D. C., et al. (2023) · Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2023.06.007 · Cited by 10
Suvorexant alters dynamics of the sleep-electroencephalography-power spectrum and depressive-symptom trajectories during inpatient opioid withdrawal
Reid, M. J., Dunn, K. E., Abraham, L., Ellis, J. D., Hunt, C., Gamaldo, C. E., Coon, W. G., Mun, C. J., Strain, E. C., Smith, M. T., et al. (2024) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsae025 · Cited by 9
Physician Antipsychotic Overprescribing Letters and Cognitive, Behavioral, and Physical Health Outcomes Among People With Dementia
Harnisch, M., Barnett, M. L., Coussens, S., Thomas, K. S., Olfson, M., Berhane, K. T., & Sacarny, A. (2024) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.7604 · Cited by 11
Smartphone App Using Mindfulness Meditation for Women With Chronic Pelvic Pain (MEMPHIS): Protocol for a Randomized Feasibility Trial
Ball, E., Newton, S., Kahan, B. C., Forbes, G., Wright, N., Calvete, C. C., Gibson, H. A. L., Rogozińska, E., Rivas, C. A., Taylor, S. J., et al. (2018) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/resprot.7720 · Cited by 9
Self-citation
A randomized controlled trial comparing non-steroidal anti-inflammatory and fusion protein inhibitors singly and in combination on the histopathology of bovine respiratory syncytial virus infection
Carvallo, F. R., Walsh, P. F., Lebedev, M., Mutua, V. N., McEligot, H. A., Bang, H., & Gershwin, L. J. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0252455 · Cited by 9
Assessing the feasibility of a web‐based outcome measurement system in child and adolescent mental health services – myHealthE a randomised controlled feasibility pilot study
Morris, A. C., Ibrahim, Z. M., Heslin, M., Moghraby, O. S., Stringaris, A. K., Grant, I. M., Zalewski, L., Pritchard, M., Stewart, R. J., Hotopf, M. H., et al. (2022) · Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.1111/camh.12571 · Cited by 11
Mechanisms associated with increased physical activity in patients undergoing self-management behaviour modification in the randomised PHYSACTO® trial
Bourbeau, J., Sedeno, M., Li, P. Z., Troosters, T., Hamilton, A., De Sousa, D., Maltais, F., Erzen, D., & Lavoie, K. L. (2021) · ERJ Open Research · doi:10.1183/23120541.00533-2020 · Cited by 8
Education can reassure people with rotator cuff–related shoulder pain: a 3-arm, randomised, online experiment
Zadro, J. R., Ferreira, G. E., Muller, R. D., Filho, L. F. S., Malliaras, P., West, C. A., O’Keeffe, M., & Maher, C. G. (2023) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000003102 · Cited by 8
Vasopressin and methylprednisolone for in-hospital cardiac arrest — Protocol for a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial
Andersen, L. W., Sindberg, B., Holmberg, M. J. J., Isbye, D. L., Kjærgaard, J., Zwisler, S. T., Darling, S., Larsen, J. M., Rasmussen, B. S., Løfgren, B., et al. (2021) · Resuscitation Plus · doi:10.1016/j.resplu.2021.100081 · Cited by 8
Impact of minimal sufficient balance, minimization, and stratified permuted blocks on bias and power in the estimation of treatment effect in sequential clinical trials with a binary endpoint
Lauzon, S. D., Zhao, W., Nietert, P. J., Ciolino, J. D., Hill, M. D., & Ramakrishnan, V. (2021) · Statistical Methods in Medical Research · doi:10.1177/09622802211055856 · Cited by 8
Can body-worn cameras reduce injuries during response-to-resistance events in a jail setting? Results from a randomized controlled trial
Lawrence, D. S., Peterson, B. E., White, M. D., Cunningham, B. C., & Coldren, J. R. (2023) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2023.102111 · Cited by 8
Increasing the reproducibility of research will reduce the problem of apophenia (and more)
Jones, P. M., & Martin, J. E. (2021) · Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d anesthésie · doi:10.1007/s12630-021-02006-1 · Cited by 8
Increasing Power in Phase III Oncology Trials With Multivariable Regression: An Empirical Assessment of 535 Primary End Point Analyses
Sherry, A. D., Passy, A. H., McCaw, Z. R., Jaoude, J. A., Lin, T. A., Kouzy, R., Miller, A. M., Kupferman, G. S., Beck, E. J., Msaouel, P., et al. (2024) · JCO Clinical Cancer Informatics · doi:10.1200/cci.24.00102 · Cited by 7
Estimating the efficiency gain of covariate-adjusted analyses in future clinical trials using external data
Li, X., Li, S., & Luedtke, A. R. (2023) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B (Statistical Methodology) · doi:10.1093/jrsssb/qkad007 · Cited by 7
More efficient and inclusive time-to-event trials with covariate adjustment: a simulation study
Momal, R., Li, H., Trichelair, P., Blum, M. G. B., & Balazard, F. (2023) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-023-07375-0 · Cited by 8
The Effect of Multi-Session Prefrontal Cortical Stimulation on Aggression: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Parallel-Group Trial
Choy, O., Tan, G., & Wong, Y. C. (2023) · Life · doi:10.3390/life13081729 · Cited by 7
Evaluation of the effectiveness of a joint general practitioner-pharmacist intervention on the implementation of benzodiazepine deprescribing in older adults (BESTOPH-MG trial): protocol for a cluster-randomized controlled trial
Huon, J., Nizet, P., Caillet, P., Lecompte, H., Victorri‐Vigneau, C., & Fournier, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1228883 · Cited by 8
How an increase in income affects the use of dental care services among a low-income population: evidence from the Finnish basic income experiment
Simanainen, M. (2024) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-024-10933-0 · Cited by 7
Mind the gap: covariate constrained randomisation can protect against substantial power loss in parallel cluster randomised trials
Kristunas, C., Grayling, M. J., Gray, L. J., & Hemming, K. (2022) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-022-01588-8 · Cited by 7
Symbolic effects of representative bureaucracy in policing: An experimental replication in a Korean context
Pyo, S. (2023) · Governance · doi:10.1111/gove.12806 · Cited by 7
A Randomised Controlled Trial of Intravenous Zoledronic Acid in Malignant Pleural Disease: A Proof of Principle Pilot Study
Clive, A. O., Hooper, C. E., Edey, A., Morley, A. J., Zahan-Evans, N. J., Hall, D., Lyburn, I. D., White, P., Braybrooke, J. P., Sequeiros, I. M., et al. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0118569 · Cited by 7
Self-citation
A noniterative sample size procedure for tests based on t distributions
Tang, Y. (2018) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.7807 · Cited by 7
Survival on four compared with three times per week haemodialysis in high ultrafiltration patients: an observational study
Fotheringham, J., Latimer, N. R., Froissart, M., Kronenberg, F., Stenvinkel, P., Floege, J., Eckardt, K., & Wheeler, D. C. (2020) · Clinical Kidney Journal · doi:10.1093/ckj/sfaa250 · Cited by 7
Financial Incentives for Preventing Postpartum return to Smoking (FIPPS): study protocol for a three-arm randomised controlled trial
USSHER, M. H., Best, C. S., Lewis, S., McKell, J., Coleman, T. J., Cooper, S., Orton, S., & Bauld, L. (2021) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-021-05480-6 · Cited by 7
Covariate adjustment in cluster randomised trials: a practical guide
Hemming, K., Hall, J. J., Copas, A. J., Watson, S., Taljaard, M., & Hooper, R. (2025) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2025-084194 · Cited by 6
Magnesium Supplementation and Tachyarrhythmias
Goulden, R., Abrahamowicz, M., Strumpf, E., & Tamblyn, R. M. (2025) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2025.6572 · Cited by 9
Psychoeducational Intervention for Reducing Heart Failure Patients’ Rehospitalizations and Promoting Their Quality of Life and Posttraumatic Growth at the 1-Year Follow-Up: A Randomized Clinical Trial
de Oliveira, F. W., Nunes, B. P., Lobato, F. L., & Schmidt, M. M. (2023) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000001180 · Cited by 6
Device-specific quality of life: results from the ATLAS trial—avoid transvenous leads in appropriate subjects
Carroll, S. L., Mondesert, B. A., Krahn, A. D., Bashir, J. G., Fisher, K., Nair, K., & Healey, J. S. (2024) · European Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing · doi:10.1093/eurjcn/zvae067 · Cited by 6
Effectiveness of the Addressing Reproductive Coercion in Health Settings (ARCHES) intervention among abortion clients in Bangladesh: a cluster-randomized controlled trial
Pearson, E., Paul, D., Menzel, J. L., Shakhider, M. A. H., Konika, R. A., Uysal, J., & Silverman, J. G. (2024) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.102699 · Cited by 6
Impact of Telemonitoring With Exacerbation Prediction Algorithm Versus Telemonitoring Alone on Hospitalizations and Health-Related Quality of Life in Patients With COPD
Kronborg, T., Hangaard, S., Laursen, S. H., Hæsum, L. K. E., Egmose, J., Bender, C., Secher, P. H., Hejlesen, O. K., & Udsen, F. W. (2025) · Respiratory Care · doi:10.1089/respcare.12611 · Cited by 9
Is routine evaluation of gastric residuals for premature infants safe or effective?
Rysavy, M. A., Watkins, P. L., Colaizy, T. T., & Das, A. (2020) · Journal of Perinatology · doi:10.1038/s41372-019-0582-8 · Cited by 6
Multiple imputation for handling missing outcome data in randomized trials involving a mixture of independent and paired data
Sullivan, T., Yelland, L. N., Moreno‐Betancur, M., & Lee, K. J. (2021) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.9166 · Cited by 7
A Randomized Trial of Direct Instruction Language for Learning in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder
Scahill, L. D., Shillingsburg, M. A., Ousley, O., Pileggi, M. L., Kilbourne, R. L., Buckley, D., Gillespie, S. E., & McCracken, C. (2022) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2021.11.034 · Cited by 6
Are we leaving money on the table in infertility RCTs? Trialists should statistically adjust for prespecified, prognostic covariates to increase power
Wilkinson, J., Showell, M. G., Taxiarchi, V. P., & Lensen, S. F. (2022) · Human Reproduction · doi:10.1093/humrep/deac030 · Cited by 6
Can patient-led surveillance detect subsequent new primary or recurrent melanomas and reduce the need for routinely scheduled follow up? Statistical analysis plan for the MEL-SELF randomised controlled trial.
Medcalf, E., Taylor, A., Turner, R. M., Espinoza, D., & Bell, K. (2022) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2022.106761 · Cited by 6
Identifying and handling unbalanced baseline characteristics in a non-randomized, controlled, multicenter social care nurse intervention study for patients in advanced stages of cancer
Frick, J., Gebert, P., Grittner, U., Letsch, A., Schindel, D., & Schenk, L. (2022) · BMC Cancer · doi:10.1186/s12885-022-09646-6 · Cited by 6
The benefits of covariate adjustment for adaptive multi-arm designs
Lee, K. M., Robertson, D. S., Jaki, T., & Emsley, R. (2022) · Statistical Methods in Medical Research · doi:10.1177/09622802221114544 · Cited by 6
Evaluation of telemental health services for people with intellectual and developmental disabilities: protocol for a randomized non-inferiority trial
Kalb, L. G., Kramer, J. M., Goode, T. D., Black, S., Klick, S., Caoili, A., Klipsch, S., Klein, A., Urquilla, M. P., & Beasley, J. B. (2023) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-023-09663-6 · Cited by 6
Comparison of Pocock and Simon’s covariate-adaptive randomization procedures in clinical trials
Shan, G., Li, Y., Lu, X., Zhang, Y., & Wu, S. S. (2024) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-024-02151-3 · Cited by 6
Update of the Preventive Antibiotics in Stroke Study (PASS): statistical analysis plan
Westendorp, W. F., Vermeij, J., Dippel, D. W. J., Dijkgraaf, M. G. W., van der Poll, T., Prins, J. M., Vermeij, F. H., Roos, Y. B. W. E. M., Brouwer, M. C., Zwinderman, A. H., et al. (2014) · Trials · doi:10.1186/1745-6215-15-382 · Cited by 6
Randomization failure in palliative care RCTs
Hoerger, M. P. (2017) · Palliative Medicine · doi:10.1177/0269216317727159 · Cited by 6
Effects of a prevention program on multiple health-compromising behaviours in adolescence: A cluster randomized controlled trial
Allara, E., Angelini, P., Gorini, G., Bosi, S., Carreras, G., Gozzi, C., Martini, A., Tamelli, M., Punreddy, R. R., & Faggiano, F. (2019) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.04.001 · Cited by 6
Rationale and study protocol for a randomized controlled trial to determine the effectiveness of a culturally relevant, stress management enhanced behavioral weight loss intervention on weight loss outcomes of black women
Buro, A. W., Baskin, M. L., Miller, D. R., Ward, T., West, D. S., Gore, L. R., Gwede, C. K., Epel, E. S., & Carson, T. L. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-12519-z · Cited by 6
Oral health promotion and labour market prospects of socially disadvantaged and unemployed people – a randomised controlled trial
Sigsgaard, A. M., Bolvig, I., Dannemand, K., Altmann, S., Hede, B., & Øzhayat, E. B. (2022) · Scandinavian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1177/14034948221092577 · Cited by 6
Balancing after randomization in orthopedic trials: Are we even or even paying attention?
Landy, D. C., Joiner, J., Conley, C., Stone, A. V., Jacobs, C. A., & Stromberg, A. J. (2022) · Journal of Orthopaedic Research® · doi:10.1002/jor.25486 · Cited by 6
The implications of outcome truncation in reproductive medicine RCTs: a simulation platform for trialists and simulation study
Wilkinson, J., Huang, J. Y., Marsden, A., Harhay, M. O., Vail, A., & Roberts, S. A. (2021) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-021-05482-4 · Cited by 7
Yoga is effective for treating chronic pain in veterans with Gulf War Illness at long-term follow-up
Allende, S., Mathersul, D. C., Schulz-Heik, J. R., Avery, T. J., Mahoney, L., & Bayley, P. J. (2023) · BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies · doi:10.1186/s12906-023-04145-y · Cited by 5
“In addition to adjusting for baseline to end-of-treatment (EOT) by group interactions, we adjusted for baseline depression, a well-established prognostic covariate of chronic pain [28], to reduce baseline differences in the outcome variables [29].”
Method
Should teachers stick to the script? Examining the effects of scripted lessons on student literacy in Madagascar
Moussa, W. S., Louge, N., Pauwelyn, L., Contreras-Gomez, R., & Cao, Y. (2023) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2023.102290 · Cited by 5
Predicted natural progression as an Alzheimer's prognostic covariate improves the precision of lecanemab efficacy assessments and clinical trial efficiency
Devanarayan, V., Ye, Y., Zhu, L., Tian, L., Kramer, L. D., Irizarry, M. C., & Dhadda, S. (2025) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.70045 · Cited by 8
Habit training versus habit training with direct visual biofeedback in adults with chronic constipation: A randomized controlled trial
Norton, C. S., Bannister, S., Booth, L. R., Brown, S. R., Cross, S., Eldridge, S. M., Emmett, C., Grossi, U., Jordan, M., Lacy‐Colson, J., et al. (2023) · Colorectal Disease · doi:10.1111/codi.16738 · Cited by 5
Adding Brief Pain Science or Ergonomics Messages to Guideline Advice Did Not Increase Feelings of Reassurance in People With Acute Low Back Pain: A Randomized Experiment
Ferreira, G. E., Zadro, J. R., Traeger, A. C., Jones, C. M. P., West, C. A., O’Keeffe, M., Jenkins, H. J., McAuley, J. H., & Maher, C. G. (2023) · Journal of Orthopaedic and Sports Physical Therapy · doi:10.2519/jospt.2023.12090 · Cited by 5
Human immune and metabolic biomarker levels, and stress-biomarker associations, differ by season: Implications for biomedical health research
Gassen, J., Mengelkoch, S., & Slavich, G. M. (2024) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2024.100793 · Cited by 7
Lying for Viewers: Commingled Partisan Falsehoods Increase Viewing and Sharing of News Media
Seol, S., Mejia, J., & Dennis, A. R. (2024) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.25300/misq/2023/17928 · Cited by 8
Estimating relative risks and risk differences in randomised controlled trials: a systematic review of current practice
Thompson, J., Watson, S., Middleton, L., & Hemming, K. (2025) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-024-08690-w · Cited by 5
A reflection on the causal interpretation of individual-level surrogacy
Alonso, A., der Elst, W. V., Molenberghs, G., & Flórez, A. J. (2019) · Journal of Biopharmaceutical Statistics · doi:10.1080/10543406.2019.1579221 · Cited by 5
Personalized treatments for depressive symptoms in patients with advanced heart failure: A pragmatic randomized controlled trial
IsHak, W. W., Korouri, S., Darwish, T., Vanle, B., Dang, J., Edwards, G. G., Black, J. T., Aronow, H. U., Kimchi, A., Spiegel, B. M. R., et al. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0244453 · Cited by 5
Impact evaluation of the family expectations program and moderation by sociodemographic disadvantage
Ritchie, L. L., Stanley, S. M., Allen, M. O. T., & RHOADES, G. K. (2022) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12762 · Cited by 7
Leveraging omics data to boost the power of genome-wide association studies
Lin, Z., Knutson, K. A., & Pan, W. (2022) · Human Genetics and Genomics Advances · doi:10.1016/j.xhgg.2022.100144 · Cited by 6
Improving the mixed model for repeated measures to robustly increase precision in randomized trials
Wang, B., & Du, Y. (2023) · The International Journal of Biostatistics · doi:10.1515/ijb-2022-0101 · Cited by 5
Is early caffeine therapy safe and effective for ventilated preterm infants?
Jain, V. G., Saroha, V., Patel, R. M., & Jobe, A. H. (2019) · Journal of Perinatology · doi:10.1038/s41372-019-0336-7 · Cited by 5
A Comparison of Covariate Adjustment Approaches Under Model Misspecification In Individually Randomized TrialsPreprint
Tackney, M. S., Morris, T. P., White, I. R., Leyrat, C., Diaz‐Ordaz, K., & Williamson, E. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1053600/v1 · Cited by 5
Self-citation
Use of conditional estimates of effect in cancer epidemiology: An application to lung cancer treatment
Abdulmajeed, J., Khatib, M., Dulli, M. W., Sioufi, S., Al-Khulaifi, A., Stone, J., Furuya‐Kanamori, L., Onitilo, A. A., & Doi, S. A. R. (2023) · Cancer Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.canep.2023.102521 · Cited by 4
Covariate adjustment in Bayesian adaptive randomized controlled trials
Willard, J., Golchi, S., & Moodie, E. E. M. (2024) · Statistical Methods in Medical Research · doi:10.1177/09622802241227957 · Cited by 4
Effect of knowledge of sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine (SP) as prophylaxis for malaria on its uptake for intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in pregnancy (IPTp): Application of inverse probability weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA) technique
Natuhamya, C., Mwebesa, E., & Tumwesigye, N. M. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0320893 · Cited by 4
The impact of randomization techniques on the performance of pre-post design models
Lu, X., Zhang, Y., Wu, S. S., & Shan, G. (2025) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-025-02632-z · Cited by 4
Impact of health-oriented marketing claims on young adults’ alcohol product perceptions, hypothetical consumption, and beliefs: a randomized experiment
Haynes, A., Talati, Z., Keric, D., Stafford, J., Myers, G., Martin, J. M., Wakefield, M. A., & Dixon, H. (2025) · Alcohol and Alcoholism · doi:10.1093/alcalc/agaf061 · Cited by 4
Design and analysis of randomized clinical trials of embryo diagnostics: phase 3
Wilkinson, J., Goodman, L. R., Hill, M. J., Seli, E. U., & Forman, E. J. (2025) · Fertility and Sterility · doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2025.07.017 · Cited by 4
Vernakalant versus procainamide for rapid cardioversion of patients with acute atrial fibrillation (RAFF4): randomised clinical trial
Stiell, I. G., Taljaard, M., Eagles, D. A., Yadav, K., Vadeboncœur, A., Hohl, C. M., Archambault, P. M., Birnie, D. H., Brown, E. L., Campbell, S., et al. (2025) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2025-085632 · Cited by 4
Sex proportion as a covariate increases the statistical test power in growth performance based experiments using as-hatched broilers
England, A. D., Musigwa, S., Kumar, A., Daneshmand, A., Gharib-Naseri, K., Kheravii, S. K., Pesti, G. M., & Wu, S. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0280040 · Cited by 4
Sociodemographic differences in nutrition labels effect on Chilean and Mexican youth
Quevedo, K. L., Jáuregui, A., Nieto, C., Contreras‐Manzano, A., White, C. M., Vanderlee, L., Barquera, S., Corvalán, C., & Hammond, D. G. (2024) · Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública · doi:10.26633/rpsp.2024.33 · Cited by 4
A Web-Based Photo-Alteration Intervention to Promote Sleep: Randomized Controlled Trial
Perucho, I., Vijayakumar, K. M., Talamas, S. N., Chee, M. W., Perrett, D., & Liu, J. C. J. (2019) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/12500 · Cited by 4
Measuring quality of life in trials including patients on haemodialysis: methodological issues surrounding the use of the Kidney Disease Quality of Life Questionnaire
Worboys, H. M., Cooper, N. J., Burton, J. O., Young, H. M. L., Waheed, G., Fotheringham, J., & Gray, L. J. (2022) · Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation · doi:10.1093/ndt/gfac170 · Cited by 4
Adjustment for baseline characteristics in randomized trials using logistic regression: sample-based model versus true model
Perneger, T., Combescure, C., & Poncet, A. (2023) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-022-07053-7 · Cited by 4
The effectiveness, efficiency, and acceptability of EMDR vs. EMDR 2.0 vs. the Flash technique in the treatment of patients with PTSD: study protocol for the ENHANCE randomized controlled trial
van Geusau, V. A., de Jongh, A., Nuijs, M. D., Brouwers, T. C., Moerbeek, M., & Matthijssen, S. J. M. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1278052 · Cited by 5
Can mid‐level providers manage medical abortion after 12 weeks' gestation as safely and effectively as physicians? A non‐inferiority, randomized controlled trial in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Kapp, N., Dijkerman, S., Getachew, A., Eckersberger, E., Pearson, E., Abubeker, F. A., & Birara, M. (2024) · International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics · doi:10.1002/ijgo.15392 · Cited by 5
Time dependent hazard ratio estimation using instrumental variables without conditioning on an omitted covariate
MacKenzie, T. A., Martínez‐Camblor, P., & O’Malley, A. J. (2021) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-021-01245-6 · Cited by 4
Covariate adjustment in randomised trials: canonical link functions protect against model mis-specificationPreprint
White, I. R., Morris, T. P., & Williamson, E. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2107.07278 · Cited by 6
Self-citation
Association between Dietary Antioxidants and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease in South Korea: Insights from a Comprehensive Cross-Sectional Analysis
Kim, J. H., Lee, M. E., Hwang, S. M., Lee, J., & Kwon, Y. S. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13206068 · Cited by 4
Exploring the effect of multi-modal intervention against cognitive decline on atrophy and small vessel disease imaging markers in the AgeWell.de imaging study
Beyer, F., Kleine, L., Zülke, A., Luppa, M., Mildner, T., Gensichen, J., Frese, T., Czock, D., Wiese, B., König, H., et al. (2025) · NeuroImage: Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2025.103796 · Cited by 2
Dietary changes following a lifestyle-based intervention for dementia risk reduction – results from the AgeWell.de study
Zülke, A. E., Blotenberg, I., Luppa, M., Löbner, M., Döhring, J., Williamson, M., Kosilek, R. P., Michel, I., Oey, A., Brettschneider, C., et al. (2024) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-024-03563-z · Cited by 3
The Baby TALK home visiting model and refugee families: A randomized controlled trial
Hilado, A., Chiatovich, T., Leow, C., & Yang, Y. (2025) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2025.108378 · Cited by 3
Redressing the balance
Kahan, B. C., & Morris, T. P. (2021) · BJOG An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1111/1471-0528.16759 · Cited by 3
Self-citation
SEAMLESS PHASE II/III CLINICAL TRIALS WITH COVARIATE ADAPTIVE RANDOMIZATION
Ma, W., Wang, M., & Zhu, H. (2020) · Statistica Sinica · doi:10.5705/ss.202019.0354 · Cited by 3
Evidence of Youth-Appealing Cigarette Advertising Tactics from a Randomized, Controlled Experiment
Moran, M. B., Weiger, C. V., Czaplicki, L., & Heley, K. M. (2022) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntac077 · Cited by 3
Change in health outcomes for First Nations children with chronic wet cough: rationale and study protocol for a multi-centre implementation science study
Laird, P. J., Walker, R., McCallum, G. B., Toombs, M. R., Barwick, M. A., Morris, P. S., Aitken, R., Cooper, M. N., Norman, R., Patel, B. K., et al. (2022) · BMC Pulmonary Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12890-022-02219-0 · Cited by 3
A pilot study of the acceptability, efficacy, and iatrogenic effects of a brief dynamic norms intervention for reducing young adult alcohol use
Graupensperger, S. A., Jaffe, A. E., Blayney, J. A., Duckworth, J. C., & Stappenbeck, C. A. (2023) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.15202 · Cited by 3

Authors: Kahan, B. C., Jairath, V., Doré, C. J., & Morris, T. P.
Affiliations: Queen Mary University of London (GB)
University of Oxford (GB)
University College London (GB)
MRC Clinical Trials Unit at UCL (GB)
Corresponding author: Kahan, Brennan C
ORCID: Kahan, Brennan C
Jairath, Vipul
Doré, Caroline J
Morris, Tim P
Venue: Trials
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2014-04-23
Volume: 15
Issue: 1
Pages: 139-139
ISSN: 1745-6215 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1186/1745-6215-15-139
PMC: PMC4022337
OpenAlex: W2166091513
Cited by: 497
References: 52
Citations by year: 2026: 31 · 2025: 69 · 2024: 61 · 2023: 67 · 2022: 73 · 2021: 57 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 6
FWCI: 18.68
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
Locations: Trials (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Queen Mary Research Online (Queen Mary University of London) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders: National Institute for Health and Care Research (CL-2013-13-008)
Medical Research Council (MC_EX_G0800814)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
Keywords: covariate adjustment, prognostic factors, statistical power, simulation study, trial analysis
MeSH terms: Analysis of Variance, Computer Simulation, Data Interpretation, Statistical, Humans, Research Design, Reproducibility of Results, Models, Statistical, Linear Models, Logistic Models, Proportional Hazards Models, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

The risks and rewards of covariate adjustment in randomized trials: an assessment of 12 outcomes from 8 studies

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Figures

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Self-check

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks