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Cited by 4,521Genomics and Phylogenetic StudiesEnvironmental DNA in Biodiversity StudiesMicrobial Community Ecology and Physiology

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Kraken: ultrafast metagenomic sequence classification using exact alignments

Open access
Wood, Derrick E, Salzberg, Steven L·2014·Genome Biology
DOI 10.1186/gb-2014-15-3-r46PMC PMC4053813
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Abstract

Kraken is an ultrafast and highly accurate program for assigning taxonomic labels to metagenomic DNA sequences. Previous programs designed for this task have been relatively slow and computationally expensive, forcing researchers to use faster abundance estimation programs, which only classify small subsets of metagenomic data. Using exact alignment of k-mers, Kraken achieves classification accuracy comparable to the fastest BLAST program. In its fastest mode, Kraken classifies 100 base pair reads at a rate of over 4.1 million reads per minute, 909 times faster than Megablast and 11 times faster than the abundance estimation program MetaPhlAn. Kraken is available at http://ccb.jhu.edu/software/kraken/.

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Figure 1 The Kraken sequence classification algorithm. To classify a sequence, each k-mer in the sequence is mapped to the lowest common ancestor (LCA) of the genomes that contain that k-mer in a database. The taxa associated with the sequence’s k-mers, as well as the taxa’s ancestors, form a pruned subtree of the general taxonomy tree, which is used for classification. In the classification tree, each node has a weight equal to the number of k-mers in the sequence associated with the node’s taxon. Each root-to-leaf (RTL) path in the classification tree is scored by adding all weights in the path, and the maximal RTL path in the classification tree is the classification path (nodes highlighted in yellow). The leaf of this classification path (the orange, leftmost leaf in the classification tree) is the classification used for the query sequence.
Figure 1 The Kraken sequence classification algorithm. To classify a sequence, each k-mer in the sequence is mapped to the lowest common ancestor (LCA) of the genomes that contain that k-mer in a database. The taxa associated with the sequence’s k-mers, as well as the taxa’s ancestors, form a pruned subtree of the general taxonomy tree, which is used for classification. In the classification tree, each node has a weight equal to the number of k-mers in the sequence associated with the node’s taxon. Each root-to-leaf (RTL) path in the classification tree is scored by adding all weights in the path, and the maximal RTL path in the classification tree is the classification path (nodes highlighted in yellow). The leaf of this classification path (the orange, leftmost leaf in the classification tree) is the classification used for the query sequence.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 2 Classification accuracy and speed comparison of classification programs for three simulated metagenomes. For each metagenome, genus precision and sensitivity are shown for five classifiers, and speed is shown for five programs (PhymmBL65 is simply a confidence-filtered version of PhymmBL’s results, and MetaPhlAn only classifies a subset of reads that map to one of its marker genes, as it is an abundance estimation program). Results shown are for: (a) the HiSeq metagenome, consisting of HiSeq reads (mean length μ = 92 bp) in equal proportion from ten bacterial sequencing projects; (b) the MiSeq metagenome, consisting of MiSeq reads (μ = 156 bp) in equal proportion from ten bacterial projects; and (c) the simBA-5 metagenome, consisting of simulated 100-bp reads with a high error rate from 1,967 bacterial and archaeal taxa. Note that the horizontal axes in all speed graphs have a logarithmic scale.
Figure 2 Classification accuracy and speed comparison of classification programs for three simulated metagenomes. For each metagenome, genus precision and sensitivity are shown for five classifiers, and speed is shown for five programs (PhymmBL65 is simply a confidence-filtered version of PhymmBL’s results, and MetaPhlAn only classifies a subset of reads that map to one of its marker genes, as it is an abundance estimation program). Results shown are for: (a) the HiSeq metagenome, consisting of HiSeq reads (mean length μ = 92 bp) in equal proportion from ten bacterial sequencing projects; (b) the MiSeq metagenome, consisting of MiSeq reads (μ = 156 bp) in equal proportion from ten bacterial projects; and (c) the simBA-5 metagenome, consisting of simulated 100-bp reads with a high error rate from 1,967 bacterial and archaeal taxa. Note that the horizontal axes in all speed graphs have a logarithmic scale.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 3 Classification accuracy and speed comparison of variants of Kraken for three simulated metagenomes. For each metagenome, genus precision and sensitivity are shown for five classifiers, and speed is shown for Kraken, along with a reduced memory version of Kraken (MiniKraken), quick execution versions of both (Kraken-Q and MiniKraken-Q), and Kraken run with a database containing draft and completed microbial genomes from GenBank (Kraken-GB). Results shown are for the same metagenomes used in Figure 2. Note that the scales of the axes differ from Figure 2, as the precision and speed of Kraken (and its variants) exceed that of the other classifiers used. (a) HiSeq metagenome. (b) MiSeq metagenome. (c) simBA-5 metagenome.
Figure 3 Classification accuracy and speed comparison of variants of Kraken for three simulated metagenomes. For each metagenome, genus precision and sensitivity are shown for five classifiers, and speed is shown for Kraken, along with a reduced memory version of Kraken (MiniKraken), quick execution versions of both (Kraken-Q and MiniKraken-Q), and Kraken run with a database containing draft and completed microbial genomes from GenBank (Kraken-GB). Results shown are for the same metagenomes used in Figure 2. Note that the scales of the axes differ from Figure 2, as the precision and speed of Kraken (and its variants) exceed that of the other classifiers used. (a) HiSeq metagenome. (b) MiSeq metagenome. (c) simBA-5 metagenome.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 4 Taxonomic distribution of saliva microbiome reads classified by Kraken. Sequences from saliva samples collected from three individuals were classified by Kraken. The distribution of those reads that were classified by Kraken is shown.
Figure 4 Taxonomic distribution of saliva microbiome reads classified by Kraken. Sequences from saliva samples collected from three individuals were classified by Kraken. The distribution of those reads that were classified by Kraken is shown.CC BY · PubMed Central
Figure 5 Kraken database structure. Each k-mer to be queried against the database has a specific substring that is its minimizer. To search for a k-mer in the database, the positions in the database that contain k-mers with the same minimizer are examined. These positions are quickly found by examining the minimizer offset array for the start positions of records with the k-mer’s minimizer (orange) and the next possible minimizer (blue). Within a range of records associated with a given minimizer, records are sorted by lexicographical ordering of their k-mers, allowing a query to be completed by using a binary search over this range.
Figure 5 Kraken database structure. Each k-mer to be queried against the database has a specific substring that is its minimizer. To search for a k-mer in the database, the positions in the database that contain k-mers with the same minimizer are examined. These positions are quickly found by examining the minimizer offset array for the start positions of records with the k-mer’s minimizer (orange) and the next possible minimizer (blue). Within a range of records associated with a given minimizer, records are sorted by lexicographical ordering of their k-mers, allowing a query to be completed by using a binary search over this range.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Metadata

Authors
Wood, D. E., & Salzberg, S. L.
Affiliations
Johns Hopkins University (US)
Corresponding author
Wood, Derrick E
ORCID
Venue
Genome Biology
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2014-03-03
Volume
15
Issue
3
Pages
R46-R46
ISSN
  • 1465-6906 (ISSN-L)
  • 1474-760X
DOI
10.1186/gb-2014-15-3-r46
PMC
PMC4053813
OpenAlex
W2159954944
Semantic Scholar
7bbac7f7916567616d933d4b2fc8b8acbbb51bdc
Cited by
4,521
References
23
Citations by year
2026: 298 · 2025: 453 · 2024: 479 · 2023: 449 · 2022: 433 · 2021: 572 · 2020: 550 · 2019: 440 · 2018: 337 · 2017: 227 · 2016: 166 · 2015: 84 · 2014: 28
FWCI
68.77
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Genome biology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health
  • National Human Genome Research Institute (R01HG006677)
  • National Institute of General Medical Sciences (R01GM083873)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Genomics and Phylogenetic Studies
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Environmental DNA in Biodiversity Studies
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Microbial Community Ecology and Physiology
Keywords
metagenomic sequence classification, taxonomic classification, metagenomics, BLAST comparison, Kraken
MeSH terms
Archaea, Bacteria, Classification, Humans, Sensitivity and Specificity, Software, Sequence Alignment, Sequence Analysis, DNA, Metagenome, Metagenomics

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