Are young female suicides increasing? A comparison of sex-specific rates and characteristics of youth suicides in Australia over 2004-2014
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Australian mortality statistics suggest that young female suicides have increased since 2004 in comparison to young males, a pattern documented across other Western high-income countries. This may indicate a need for more targeted and multifaceted youth suicide prevention efforts. However, sex-based time trends are yet to be tested empirically within a comprehensive Australian sample. The aim of this study was to examine changes over time in sex-based rates and characteristics of all suicides among young people in Australia (2004-2014). METHODS: National Coronial Information System and Australian Bureau of Statistics data provided annual suicide counts and rates for 10-24-year-olds in Australia (2004-2014), stratified by sex, age group, Indigenous status and methods. Negative binomial regressions estimated time trends in population-stratified rates, and multinomial logistic regressions estimated time trends by major suicide methods (i.e., hanging, drug poisoning). RESULTS: Between 2004 and 2014, 3709 young Australians aged 10-24 years died by suicide. Whilst, overall, youth suicide rates did not increase significantly in Australia between 2004 and 2014, there was a significant increase in suicide rates for females (incident rate ratio [IRR] 1.03, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.01 to 1.06), but not males. Rates were consistently higher among Aboriginal/Torres Strait Islander youth, males, and in older (20-24-years) as compared to younger (15-19 years) age groups. Overall, the odds of using hanging as a method of suicide increased over time among both males and females, whilst the odds of using drug-poisoning did not change over this period. CONCLUSIONS: We showed that suicide rates among young females, but not young males, increased over the study period. Patterns were observed in the use of major suicide methods with hanging the most frequently used method among both sexes and more likely among younger and Aboriginal/Torres Strait Islander groups. Findings highlight the need to broaden current conceptualizations of youth suicide to one increasingly involving young females, and strengthen the case for a multifaceted prevention approach that capitalize on young females' greater help-seeking propensity.
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Worldwide, suicide rates are higher and are continuing to increase modestly for men and boys than for women and girls, but in many countries rates are increasing more rapidly in young women than in young men.
“Although suicide rates are higher and are continuing to increase modestly for men and boys than for women and girls, in many countries rates are increasing more rapidly in young women than in young men.”
From The Lancet Psychiatry Commission on youth mental health (2024) · cites this paper as [39]
The Background reports that young male suicide rates remain higher in Australia and that young female rates have risen in several OECD countries. But the Abstract Results report no significant increase among young Australian males between 2004 and 2014; the paper does not establish a continuing modest increase among men and boys worldwide. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSome of the most striking rises in suicide rates have occurred in high-income countries.
“High-income countries were selected because recent studies have highlighted that some of the most striking rises in suicide rates have occurred in these settings (Bould et al., 2019; Ruch et al., 2019; Stefanac et al., 2019)”
From Social media use, economic recession and income inequality in relation to trends in youth suicide in high-income countries: a time trends analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Stefanac et al., 2019
Suicide rates in young people have markedly increased in several high-income countries over the last decade.
“Suicide rates in young people have markedly increased in several high-income countries over the last decade (Bould et al., 2019; Ruch et al., 2019; Stefanac et al., 2019).”
From Social media use, economic recession and income inequality in relation to trends in youth suicide in high-income countries: a time trends analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Stefanac et al., 2019
Rises in youth suicide rates have previously been reported in England and Wales, the USA and Australia.
“Rises in youth suicide rates have previously been reported in England and Wales (Bould et al., 2019), the USA (Ruch et al., 2019) and Australia (Stefanac et al., 2019).”
From Social media use, economic recession and income inequality in relation to trends in youth suicide in high-income countries: a time trends analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Stefanac et al., 2019
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“Female adolescents represent the group at highest risk of psychological distress, lower life satisfaction, self-harm, and suicidal behaviour (e.g., considering attempting suicide), compared to male adolescents [9–12].”
Suicide in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada: a time trend analysis from 1981 to 2018
Pollock, N. J., Liu, L., Wilson, M., Reccord, C., Power, N., Mulay, S., Karaivanov, Y., & Tonmyr, L. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-11293-8 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Witt, K., Teo, S. M., Ziou, M., Rajaram, G., Baker, D. G., Browne, V., Schmaal, L., McGorry, P. D., & Gao, C. X. (2025) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00048674251393162 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“In Australia, suicide is the leading cause of death for those aged 18–44 years (Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), 2024), and rates are increasing, particularly for young females (Stefanac et al., 2019).”
Robinson, J., Kõlves, K., & Sisask, M. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0264984 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
An, Y. J., Paek, S. H., Kim, O. J., Kim, J. A., Kwon, J. H., & Kim, M. J. (2020) · Pediatric Emergency Medicine Journal · doi:10.22470/pemj.2020.00115 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Suicide Trends Among South Korean Young Adults: Focusing on Sex Differences
Choi, H., Ahn, J., Park, Y., Kim, H., & Lee, U. (2025) · Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services · doi:10.3928/02793695-20250217-04 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…three times higher than that of females (Ahn et al., 2012), the rapid increase in suicide among females Th is trend is also evident in other countries, especially among female adolescents aged 10 to 19 years, where the upward trend is more pronounced (Stefanac et al., 2019; Zulyniak et al., 2022).”
Townsend, H. (2024) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012241265365 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“This is despite national statistics indicating a steady increase in suicide rates among young women (ABS, 2023b; Stefanac et al., 2019).”
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0002 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Can #chatsafe support parents and carers beyond Australia? A qualitative study
Sala, L. L., Sabo, A., Lamblin, M., & Robinson, J. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-19040-5 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Liu, B., Han, B., Zheng, H., Liu, H., Zhao, T., Wan, Y., & Cui, F. (2021) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare9080970 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Cooper, C., Sala, L. L., Patlamazoglou, L., Patrick, P., Sabo, A., Rajaram, G., & Robinson, J. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2026.101067 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Understanding the Religion, Mental, and Social Health Relationship
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0016 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Looijmans, M., Elzinga, E., Popma, A., van Bergen, D. V., Gilissen, R., & Mérelle, S. Y. M. (2024) · Frontiers in child and adolescent psychiatry · doi:10.3389/frcha.2024.1376872 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Perfil da morbimortalidade de adolescentes por intoxicação exógena no Brasil
da Silva, M. N., Ferreira, M. M. M. D. N., & Viana, M. R. P. (2020) · Research Society and Development · doi:10.33448/rsd-v9i10.8914 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Townsend, H. (2024) · Gender & Society · doi:10.1177/08912432241300619 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Suicide is one of the leading causes of death of young women 1 (ages under 24 years) in Australia, and over the last two decades, the rate has increased (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2024; Stefanac et al. 2019).”
Albrecht, S., Rickwood, D., Telford, N. R., Privitera, G., & Palfrey, N. (2025) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.70020 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Fadel, H. T., Sultan, R. A., Alrasheedi, L. M., Alsadiq, J. G., Kattuah, R. T., Al-Malik, M. I., & Rhbeini, Y. A. (2020) · Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.09.050 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Psychological Well-Being and Positive Emotions
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0012 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Granheim, I. P. H., Kvernmo, S. E., & Silviken, A. (2025) · International Journal of Circumpolar Health · doi:10.1080/22423982.2025.2561279 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Suizide unter Adoleszenten in einer deutschen Großstadt
Papsdorf, R., von Klitzing, K., & Radeloff, D. (2021) · Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1024/1422-4917/a000832 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
К вопросу о гендерном парадоксе в суицидологии – современный контекст
Розанов, В. А. (2021) · Суицидология · doi:10.32878/suiciderus.21-12-01(42)-80-108 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0025 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Substance Use and Substance Use Disorders
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0010 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0014 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0015 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Clapperton, A., Dwyer, J., & Spittal, M. J. (2023) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00048674231165226 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“This equates to a suicide rate of 1.53 per 1000 person years (almost 40 times higher than the rate of 0.04 per 1000 in the general population of Australian females aged 10–24 years (Stefanac et al., 2019)).”
BackgroundInfluentialKoenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0027 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0008 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Public Health and Human Flourishing
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0032 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Understanding the Religion–Physical Health Relationship
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0031 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0017 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0006 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Change points in Australian suicide rates: Trends from 2000 to 2022
Roberts, L. J., Clapperton, A., & Spittal, M. J. (2025) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/00048674251361682 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“In Australia, the number of suicides has been increasing since the mid-2000s (Spittal et al., 2024) with the increase among young women ( 25 years) being of particular concern (Stefanac et al., 2019).”
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.002.0003 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Witt, K., Teo, S. M., Ziou, M., Rajaram, G., Baker, D. G., Browne, V., Schmaal, L., McGorry, P. D., & Gao, C. X. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5262921 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Youth Suicide Research: Some Current Challenges and Opportunities
Robinson, J., & Teh, Z. (2021) · Suicidologi/Nytt i suicidologi · doi:10.5617/suicidologi.8545
INTOXICAÇÕES EXÓGENAS EM CRIANÇAS E ADOLESCENTES NO CEARÁ: UM ESTUDO EPIDEMIOLÓGICO DE 2016 A 2021
Cruz, S. M., FREITAS, R. D. S. D. F. E., Filho, E. F. B., Almeida, S. M. C., & VIANA, H. T. D. O. (2023) · doi:10.58871/ed.academic.00044.v1
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0034
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0021
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0007
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0005
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0029
Levin, J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.002.0007
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0033
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.002.0009
Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Dementias
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0023
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0024
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0020
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0026
Disease Prevention, Detection, and Treatment
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0030
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0019
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.002.0004
Personality Traits and Disorders
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0011
Schizophrenia and Other Psychoses
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0009
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0004
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0018
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0003
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0013
Koh, H. K. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.002.0006
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0028
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.003.0022
Studies on Religion and Health
Koenig, H. G., VanderWeele, T. J., & Peteet, J. R. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088859.005.0001
Temporal Fluctuations of Suicide Mortality in Japan from 2009 to 2023 Using Government Databases
Matsumoto, R., Motomura, E., & Okada, M. (2024) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe14040071
Determinantes sociodemográficos del acto suicida en la población peruana: un análisis multivariable
Tirado, A. G. (2024) · Revista Médica Herediana · doi:10.20453/rmh.v35i4.5020
Paz, M. Á. E., Martín, F. M., Alonso, E. A., & Romero, A. D.-G. (2025) · Acta Colombiana de Psicología · doi:10.14718/acp.2025.28.4
van Bergen, D. D., Looijmans, M., Balt, E., Rasing, S. P. A., Gilissen, R., Creemers, D. H. M., & Mérelle, S. Y. M. (2025) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2025.2491574
“…have seen an upward trend of the suicide rates of girls and young women in the past decades, including Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States, (Bertuccio et al., 2024; Bould et al., 2019; Miron et al., 2019; Padmanathan et al., 2020; Stefanac et al., 2019; Varin et al., 2021).”
- Authors
- Stefanac, N., Hetrick, S., Hulbert, C., Spittal, M. J., Witt, K., & Robinson, J.
- Affiliations
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- University of Auckland (NZ)
- Orygen (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Robinson, Jo
- Venue
- BMC Public Health
- Published
- 2019-10-28
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1389-1389
- ISSN
- 1471-2458 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6819336
- OpenAlex
- W2982186017
- Cited by
- 105
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 11 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 8.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- BMC Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- ResearchSpace (University of Auckland) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Health and Medical Research Council
- Auckland Medical Research Foundation
- American Foundation for Suicide Prevention (PDF-0-145-16)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Homicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Injury Epidemiology and Prevention
- Keywords
- youth suicide, young women, sex differences in suicide, suicide rates, temporal trends, hanging, drug poisoning, suicide methods, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth, Indigenous status, suicide prevention, Australia
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Australia, Child, Female, Humans, Male, Retrospective Studies, Suicide, Age Distribution, Sex Distribution, Young Adult
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