Relationship between energy availability, energy conservation and cognitive restraint with performance measures in male endurance athletes
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Low energy availability in male athletes has gained a lot of attention in recent years, but direct evidence of its effects on health and performance is lacking. The aim of this research was to objectively measure energy availability (EA) in healthy male endurance athletes without pre-existing relative energy deficiency signs during pre-race season. METHODS: Twelve trained endurance athletes (performance level 3, 4, and 5) participated in the cross-sectional controlled laboratory study. Fat-free mass, exercise energy expenditure, and energy intake were measured to calculate EA. Resting energy expenditure was measured and estimated to assess energy conservation. Three specific performance tests were used to assess endurance, agility, and explosive strength performance. For psychological evaluation, the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire and a short Well-being questionnaire were completed. RESULTS: Mean EA was 29.5 kcal/kg FFM/day. The majority (66.6%) had EA under the threshold for low EA in females. Critical cognitive restraint (≥13) was reported by 75% of participants. There were no differences in performance, blood values, or psychological evaluation when subjects were divided into two groups divided by EA = 30 kcal/kg FFM/day. Cognitive restraint was negatively associated with measured resting energy expenditure and energy conservation (r = -.578, p = .025 and r = -.549, p = .032, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: The mean EA measured in this study supports the theory that the threshold for low EA in endurance male athletes might be under the threshold for females. In addition, we confirmed cognitive restraint could be useful for early detection of energy conservation. The high cognitive restraint as measured in our sample stressed the need of eating behavior screening in endurance athletes in order to reduce risk of any disordered eating patterns.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Jurov et al. first study found no measurable differences in VO2 max, peak power output, relative power output, or anaerobic threshold between well-trained male athletes with and without LEA.
“In their first study (n = 12), there were no measurable differences in VO2 max, peak power output, relative power output, or anaerobic threshold between well-trained male athletes with and without LEA [55].”
From Low Energy Availability and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (2025) · cites this paper as [55]
The Discussion (‘What is the threshold for LEA?’; page unavailable) reports no differences in endurance performance between participants above and below 30 kcal/kg FFM/day. The Results list VO2max, peak power output, relative power output, and anaerobic threshold among the measured performance parameters. However, the paper cautions that 30 kcal/kg FFM/day may not be the LEA threshold for men, so it does not establish that the groups were definitively with and without LEA. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet
References 30 · Cited by 32
Research works printed but not linked: 22
- [1]Burke LM Close GL Lundy B Mooses M Morton JP Tenforde AS Relative energy deficiency in sport in male athletes: a commentary on its presentation among selected groups of male athletes Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2018 28 4 364 374 10.1123/ijsnem.2018-0182 30040508 · DOI
- [3]Ackerman KE Holtzman B Cooper KM Flynn EF Bruinvels G Tenforde AS Low energy availability surrogates correlate with health and performance consequences of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport Br J Sports Med 2018 53 10 628 633 10.1136/bjsports-2017-098958 29860237 · DOI · Paper page
- [4]Loucks AB Thuma JR Luteinizing hormone pulsatility is disrupted at a threshold of energy availability in regularly menstruating women J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003 88 1 297 311 10.1210/jc.2002-020369 12519869 · DOI · Paper page
- [5]Mountjoy M, Sundgot-Borgen J, Burke L, Ackerman KE, Blauwet C, Constantini N, et al. International olympic committee (ioc) consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S): 2018 update. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2018;28(4):316–331. [cited 2018 Oct 15]. Available from: 10.1123/ijsnem.2018-0136 29771168 · DOI · Paper page
- [6]Laughlin GA, Yen SS. Hypoleptinemia in Women Athletes: Absence of a Diurnal Rhythm with Amenorrhea. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997;82(1):318–321. [cited 2021 Jan 17]. Available from: 10.1210/jcem.82.1.3840 8989281 · DOI
- [8]Gibbs JC Williams NI Mallinson RJ Reed JL Rickard AD De Souza MJ Effect of high dietary restraint on energy availability and menstrual status Med Sci Sports Exerc 2013 45 9 1790 1797 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3182910e11 23954993 · DOI
- [9]De Souza MJ West SL Jamal SA Hawker GA Gundberg CM Williams NI The presence of both an energy deficiency and estrogen deficiency exacerbate alterations of bone metabolism in exercising women Bone 2008 43 1 140 148 10.1016/j.bone.2008.03.013 18486582 · DOI
- [10]Jurov I Hadžić V Rauter S Markers of energy metabolism affect lactate metabolism and aerobic performance in competitive female cyclists Appl Sci 2020 10 21 7563 10.3390/app10217563 · DOI
- [11]Heikura IA Stellingwerff T Bergland D Mero AA Burke LM Low energy Availability is difficult to assess but outcomes have large impact on bone injury rates in elite distance athletes Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2018 28 4 403 411 10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0313 29252050 · DOI · Paper page
- [12]Capling L Beck K Gifford J Slater G Flood V O’Connor H Validity of dietary assessment in athletes: a systematic review Nutrients 2017 9 12 1313 10.3390/nu9121313 PMC5748763 29207495 · DOI
- [13]De Pauw K Roelands B Cheung SS de Geus B Rietjens G Meeusen R Guidelines to classify subject groups in sport-science research Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2013 8 2 111 122 10.1123/ijspp.8.2.111 23428482 · DOI · Paper page
- [14]de Weir JB New methods for calculating metabolic rate with special reference to protein metabolism J Physiol 1949 109 1–2 1 9 10.1113/jphysiol.1949.sp004363 15394301 PMC1392602 · DOI
- [15]Torstveit MK Fahrenholtz IL Lichtenstein MB Stenqvist TB Melin AK Exercise dependence, eating disorder symptoms and biomarkers of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sports (RED-S) among male endurance athletes BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2019 5 1 e000439 10.1136/bmjsem-2018-000439 PMC6350749 30792881 · DOI
- [16]Westerterp KR. Measurement of Energy Expenditure. In: Translational research methods for diabetes, obesity and cardiometabolic drug development. London: Springer London; 2015:169–187. [cited 2019 June 10]. Available from: 10.1007/978-1-4471-4920-0_7 · DOI
- [18]Harris JA, Benedict FG. A biometric study of human basal metabolism. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1918;4(12):370–373. Available from: 10.1073/pnas.4.12.370 PMC1091498 16576330 · DOI · Paper page
- [19]Viner RT Harris M Berning JR Meyer NL Energy availability and dietary patterns of adult male and female competitive cyclists with lower than expected bone mineral density Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2015 25 6 594 602 10.1123/ijsnem.2015-0073 26131616 · DOI · Paper page
- [21]McLean BD Coutts AJ Kelly V McGuigan MR Cormack SJ Neuromuscular, endocrine, and perceptual fatigue responses during different length between-match microcycles in professional rugby league players Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2010 5 3 367 383 10.1123/ijspp.5.3.367 20861526 · DOI · Paper page
- [23]De Souza MJ Hontscharuk R Olmsted M Kerr G Williams NI Drive for thinness score is a proxy indicator of energy deficiency in exercising women Appetite 2007 48 3 359 367 10.1016/j.appet.2006.10.009 17184880 · DOI
- [24]De Souza MJ Lee DK VanHeest JL Scheid JL West SL Williams NI Severity of energy-related menstrual disturbances increases in proportion to indices of energy conservation in exercising women Fertil Steril 2007 88 4 971 975 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2006.11.171 17418159 · DOI
- [25]Gibbs JC Williams NI Scheid JL Toombs RJ De Souza MJ The association of a high drive for thinness with energy deficiency and severe menstrual disturbances: confirmation in a large population of exercising women Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2011 21 4 280 290 10.1123/ijsnem.21.4.280 21813911 · DOI
- [27]Scheid JL De Souza MJ Hill BR Leidy HJ Williams NI Decreased luteinizing hormone pulse frequency is associated with elevated 24-hour ghrelin after calorie restriction and exercise in premenopausal women Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2013 304 1 E109 E116 10.1152/ajpendo.00360.2012 23115078 PMC3543535 · DOI
- [29]Koehler K Hoerner NR Gibbs JC Zinner C Braun H De Souza MJ Low energy availability in exercising men is associated with reduced leptin and insulin but not with changes in other metabolic hormones J Sports Sci 2016 34 20 1921 1929 10.1080/02640414.2016.1142109 26852783 · DOI · Paper page
- Authors
- Jurov, I., Keay, N., Hadžić, V., Spudić, D., & Rauter, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Ljubljana (SI)
- Durham University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Jurov, Iva
- Venue
- Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2021-01-02
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 24-24
- ISSN
- 1550-2783 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7977281
- OpenAlex
- W3139486319
- Cited by
- 32
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 5
- FWCI
- 4.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Research Square (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Repository of the University of Ljubljana (University of Ljubljana) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Javna Agencija za Raziskovalno Dejavnost RS (P5-0147)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Keywords
- energy availability, energy conservation, cognitive restraint, endurance athletes, male athletes, resting energy expenditure, exercise energy expenditure, energy intake, fat-free mass, dietary habits, disordered eating, well-being, early detection
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Energy Intake, Cognition, Cross-Sectional Studies, Energy Metabolism, Humans, Male, Physical Endurance, Body Fat Distribution, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
