Low energy availability in exercising men is associated with reduced leptin and insulin but not with changes in other metabolic hormones
Abstract
Low energy availability, defined as low caloric intake relative to exercise energy expenditure, has been linked to endocrine alterations frequently observed in chronically energy-deficient exercising women. Our goal was to determine the endocrine effects of low energy availability in exercising men. Six exercising men (VO2peak: 49.3 ± 2.4 ml · kg(-1) · min(-1)) underwent two conditions of low energy availability (15 kcal · kg(-1) fat-free mass [FFM] · day(-1)) and two energy-balanced conditions (40 kcal · kg(-1) FFM · day(-1)) in randomised order. During one low energy availability and one balanced condition, participants exercised to expend 15 kcal · kg(-1) FFM · day(-1); no exercise was conducted during the other two conditions. Metabolic hormones were assessed before and after each 4-day period. Following both low energy availability conditions, leptin (-53% to -56%) and insulin (-34% to -38%) were reduced (P 0.80). Low energy availability did not significantly impact ghrelin, triiodothyronine, testosterone and IGF-1 (all P > 0.05). The observed reductions in leptin and insulin were in the same magnitude as changes previously reported in sedentary women. Further research is needed to understand why other metabolic hormones are more robust against low energy availability in exercising men than those in sedentary and exercising women.
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Most LEA intervention studies are accompanied by a substantial reduction (25%-60%) in carbohydrate ingestion, resulting in concurrent LCA.
“Most LEA intervention studies are also accompanied by a substantial reduction (25%-60%, depending on magnitude of LEA) in carbohydrate (CHO) ingestion, resulting in concurrent LCA.”
From 2023 international olympic committee's (IOC) consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (REDs) (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
There is evidence that most males can sustain a lower EA before physiological and psychological disturbances manifest.
“Indeed, there is evidence that most males can sustain a lower EA before physiological and psychological disturbances manifest.”
From 2023 international olympic committee's (IOC) consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (REDs) (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
While a universal cut-off of 30 kcal/kg FFM/day as a threshold of LEA leading to some REDs outcomes in females is debated, such a cut-off or range at which males experience REDs-related symptoms is even less understood, but appears to be lower (eg, ~9 to 25 kcal/kg FFM/day).
“While a universal cut-off of 30 kcal/kg FFM/day as a threshold of LEA leading to some REDs outcomes in females is debated, 88 such a cut-off or range at which males experience REDs-related symptoms is even less understood, 89 but appears to be lower (eg, ~9 to 25 kcal/kg FFM/day).17 46 72 90 91”
From 2023 international olympic committee's (IOC) consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (REDs) (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Most intervention studies assessing low energy availability in athletes are also accompanied by a considerable reduction in carbohydrate intake, approximately 25-60% depending on the magnitude of low energy availability.
“Most intervention studies assessing LEA in athletes are also accompanied by a considerable reduction in CHO intake (approximately 25–60% reduction in CHO, depending on the magnitude of LEA) [16,23,24,25].”
From Considerations of Low Carbohydrate Availability (LCA) to Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) in Female Endurance Athletes: A Narrative Review (2023) · cites this paper as [24]
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- Authors
- Koehler, K., Hoerner, N. R., Gibbs, J. C., Zinner, C., Braun, H., De Souza, M. J., & Schaenzer, W.
- Affiliations
- University of Nebraska–Lincoln (US)
- German Sport University Cologne (DE)
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- University of Würzburg (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Koehler, Karsten
- Venue
- Journal of Sports Sciences
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2016-02-06
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 20
- Pages
- 1921-1929
- ISSN
- 0264-0414 (ISSN-L)
- 1466-447X
- OpenAlex
- W2265213386
- Cited by
- 164
- References
- 11
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 4
- FWCI
- 6.57
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Sports Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Kölner Universitäts PublikationsServer (Universität zu Köln) (publishedVersion)
- Lincoln (University of Nebraska) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- German Sport University (Young Investigators Grant)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Hypothalamic control of reproductive hormones
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Keywords
- low energy availability, energy deficiency, leptin, insulin, ghrelin, triiodothyronine, testosterone, insulin-like growth factor I, metabolic hormones, exercise energy expenditure, fat-free mass, sex differences
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Energy Intake, Energy Metabolism, Physical Exertion, Humans, Insulin, Insulin-Like Growth Factor I, Male, Sex Factors, Testosterone, Triiodothyronine, Exercise, Leptin, Ghrelin, Young Adult
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