Fetal Growth Restriction and Postnatal Development
Abstract
Abstract: The interaction between genetic constitution and in utero environment determines fetal growth and development and influences the susceptibility to certain disorders in adulthood. Data from both animal and human studies indicate that prenatal and early postnatal malnutrition can program the hypothalamus‐pituitary‐adrenal axis (HPA axis), altering neuroendocrine response to stressors throughout lifetime. Impaired uteroplacental perfusion results in fetal growth restriction (FGR). In FGR there is evidence of chronic hypoxemia and alterations in metabolic, endocrine, and hematological parameters, compatible with starvation. Furthermore, FGR is associated with increased perinatal mortality and in the survivors there is increased susceptibility to diabetes and cardiovascular disease in adulthood. There is evidence that early postnatal growth acceleration, which would normally be considered desirable, may exacerbate metabolic dysfunction in later life.
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Preterm birth and FGR are clinically observable sentinel phenotypes that may reflect several adverse maternal-placental-fetal pathways and are themselves associated with long-term cardiometabolic risk.
“Preterm birth and FGR are clinically observable sentinel phenotypes that may reflect several adverse maternal–placental–fetal pathways and are themselves associated with long-term cardiometabolic risk [97,98,99,100,101].”
From Placental Pathophysiology and Developmental Programming of Adult Cardiometabolic Risk: A Narrative Review of Pregnancy Exposures (2026) · cites this paper as [100]
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- Authors
- ELEFTHERIADES, M., CREATSAS, G., & NICOLAIDES, K.
- Affiliations
- University of London (GB)
- National and Kapodistrian University of Athens (GR)
- Corresponding author
- ELEFTHERIADES, MAKARIOS
- Venue
- Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2006-12
- Volume
- 1092
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 319-330
- ISSN
- 0077-8923 (ISSN-L)
- 1749-6632
- OpenAlex
- W2092250698
- Cited by
- 60
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 4 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 0.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Birth, Development, and Health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Obstetrics and Gynecology › Pregnancy and preeclampsia studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Prenatal Substance Exposure Effects
- Keywords
- fetal growth restriction, postnatal development, fetal programming, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, neuroendocrine stress response, uteroplacental blood flow, fetal hypoxemia, perinatal mortality, diabetes susceptibility, cardiovascular disease susceptibility, metabolic dysfunction
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Female, Fetal Growth Retardation, Humans, Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System, Pituitary-Adrenal System, Pregnancy, Models, Animal
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