The DOI matches its Crossref record; 66 of the 66 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Can We Trust Creativity Tests? A Review of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT)
Abstract
Dr. E. Paul Torrance, "Father of Creativity," is best known for developing the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT). The TTCT was developed by Torrance in 1966. It has been renormed 4 times: in 1974, 1984, 1990, and 1998. There are 2 forms (A and B) of the TTCT-Verbal and 2 forms (A and B) of the TTCT-Figural. However, in the scope of this review, only the TTCT-Figural was examined. The TTCT has been translated into more than 35 languages (Millar, 2002). It has become highly recommended in the educational field and is even used in the corporate world. It is the most widely used test of creativity (Davis, 1997) and is the most referenced of all creativity tests (Lissitz & Willhoft, 1985). Basic information is presented, including purposes, content area, norms, reliability, and validity. Strengths and weaknesses of the TTCT, including use of the TTCT in identifying gifted learners and suggestions for further development and improvement, are provided and discussed.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cited works that were retracted
Works this paper cites that were later retracted, from the retraction notices publishers deposit. Major when the notice came out before this paper was published.
A note, not an issue: for example, a cited work that was retracted only after this paper was published, which its authors could not have known.
Cited work 10.1207/s15326934crj1801_10 · retracted 2019-12-03 · notice 10.1080/10400419.2019.1647690 · this paper published 2006-01-01
Citations
Cites
1 retracted
RETRACTED ARTICLE: The Nature of Creativity
(2006) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1207/s15326934crj1801_10 · Cited by 1,627
RetractedFrom dissertation abstracts international
(1974) · ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics · doi:10.1145/988616.988619 · Cited by 12,208
Handbook of the Psychology of Aging
Schaie, K. W., Willis, S. L., Knight, B. G., & Park, D. C. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2012-0-07221-3 · Cited by 3,440
Adaptors and innovators: A description and measure.
Kirton, M. J. (1976) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.61.5.622 · Cited by 1,786
Guilford, J. P. (1956) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0040755 · Cited by 1,677
Torrance, E. P. (1962) · Prentice-Hall, Inc eBooks · doi:10.1037/13134-000 · Cited by 1,603
Education of the Gifted and Talented
DAVIS, G. A., & Rimm, S. B. (1985) · Cited by 925
(1988) · Cited by 707
Modes of Thinking in Young Children
Shulman, L. S., Wallach, M. A., & Kogan, N. (1966) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.2307/1162039 · Cited by 682
Giftedness, Conflict, and Underachievement
(1983) · Gifted Child Today · doi:10.1177/107621758300300622 · Cited by 570
Research works printed but not linked: 36
- Abernathy Tannehill, R. L. (1998). An analysis of selected creativity tests administered to students affiliated with the Cherokee tribe. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58(7-a), 2526. (UMI No. 9801472)
- Ali, 1978, Dissertation Abstracts International, 1979, 7
- Baer J., 1993, Educational Leadership, 51, 80
- Bamber R. T., 1973, Dissertation Abstracts International, 35, 1013B
- Barron, F. (1961). Creative vision and expression in writing and painting. In D. W. MacKinnon (Ed.), The creative person (pp. 237-251). Berkeley: University of California, Institute of Personality Assessment Research.
- Chase, C. I. (1985). Review of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. In J. V. Mitchell Jr. (Ed.), The ninth mental measurements yearbook (pp. 1631-1632). Lincoln: University of Nebraska, Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.
- Cramond, B. (1993). The Torrance tests of creative thinking: From design through establishment of predictive validity. In R. F. Subotnik & K. D. Arnold (Eds.), Beyond Terman: Contemporary longitudinal studies of giftedness and talent (pp. 229-254). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
- Cramond B., 1994, Educational Leadership, 52, 70
- Cropley A. J., 1971, Journal of Research and Development in Education, 4, 113
- Davis, G. A. (1997). Identifying creative students and measuring creativity. In N. Colangelo & G. A. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of gifted education (pp. 269-281). Needham Heights, MA: Viacom.
- Getzels J. W., 1958, Phi Delta Kappan, 40, 75
- Guilford, J. P. (1959). Personality. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Hocevar D., 1979, Child Study Journal, 9, 273
- Iscoe I., 1964, Child Development, 35, 785
- Johnson, A. S. & Fishkin, A. S. (1999). Assessment of cognitive and affective behaviors related to creativity. In A. S. Fishkin, B. Cramond, & P. Olszewski-Kubilius (Eds.), Investigating creativity in youth: Research and methods (pp. 265-306). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton.
- Kim, K. H. (2004a, April). Confirmatory factor analyses and multiple group analyses on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Poster presented at the Research Symposium: The Preparation of Educators, Athens, GA. Sponsored by Georgia Systemic Teacher Education Program.
- Kim, K. H. (2004b). Cultural influence on creativity: The relationship between creativity and Confucianism. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Georgia, Athens.
- Kwon, M. C. (1997). An exploratory study of a computerized creativity test: Comparing paper-pencil and computer-based versions of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58(1-A), 0141, (UMI No. 9718390)
- MacKinnon, D. W. (1961). Creativity in architects. In D. W. MacKinnon (Ed.), The creative person (pp. 237-251). Berkeley: University of California, Institute of Personality Assessment Research.
- Mourad, S. A. (1976). A factor-analytic study of the streamlined scoring of Figural Form A of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Unpublished master's thesis, University of Georgia, Athens.
- Oliphant C. C., 1986, Dissertation Abstracts International, 47, 1691
- Ritchie S. P., 1980, Dissertation Abstracts International, 42, 539
- Robinson A. W., 1980, Dissertation Abstracts International, 41, 1380
- Rungsinan A., 1977, Dissertation Abstracts International, 1977, 38A
- Swartz, J. D. (1988). Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. In D. J. Keyser & R. C. Sweetland (Eds.), Test Critique Vol. 7 (pp. 619-622). Kansas, MS: Test Corporation of America.
- Torrance, E. P. (1965a). Rewarding creative behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
- Torrance, E. P. (1966). The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking-Norms-Technical Manual Research Edition-Verbal Tests, Forms A and B-Figural Tests, Forms A and B. Princeton, NJ: Personnel Press.
- Torrance, E. P. (1974). The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking-Norms-Technical Manual Research Edition-Verbal Tests, Forms A and B- Figural Tests, Forms A and B. Princeton, NJ: Personnel Press.
- Torrance E. P., 1980, Creative Child and Adult Quarterly, 5, 148
- Torrance E. P., 1981, Creative Child and Adult Quarterly, 6, 136
- Torrance, E. P. & Safter, H. T. (1999). Making the creative leap beyond. Buffalo, NY: Creative Education Foundation Press.
- Torrance E. P., 1981, Creative Child and Adult Quarterly, 6, 71
- Treffinger, D. J. (1985). Review of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. In J. V. Mitchell Jr. (Ed.), The ninth mental measurements yearbook (pp. 1632-1634). Lincoln: University of Nebraska, Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.
- Walberg, H. J. & Herbig, M. P. (1991). Developing talent, creativity, and eminence. In N. Colangelo & G. A. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of gifted education (pp. 245-255). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
- Willams, E. (2000). The history of the evolution of gifted identification procedures in Georgia. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Georgia, Athens.
- Witt G., 1971, Journal of Research and Development in Education, 4, 14
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 831
Meta-analysis of interventions and their effectiveness in students’ scientific creativity
Bi, H., Mi, S., Lu, S., & Hu, X. (2020) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100750 · Cited by 63
An improved taxonomy of creativity measures based on salient task attributes.
Weiss, S., Wilhelm, O., & Kyllonen, P. C. (2021) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/aca0000434 · Cited by 51
Divergent creativity in humans and large language models
Bellemare-Pepin, A., Lespinasse, F., Thölke, P., Harel, Y., Mathewson, K. W., Olson, J. A., Bengio, Y., & Jerbi, K. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-25157-3 · Cited by 121
Human Performance Optimization Metrics
Nindl, B. C., Jaffin, D. P., Dretsch, M. N., Cheuvront, S. N., Wesensten, N. J., Kent, M. L., Grunberg, N. E., Pierce, J. R., Barry, E. S., Scott, J. M., et al. (2015) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000001114 · Cited by 53
“Adaptability/Creativity: Remote Association Test; Torrance Test of Creativity; Task-Change Paradigms; WCST; Situational Judgment Tasks; Attentional Shift Tasks.”
BackgroundEvaluation of Musical Creativity and Musical Metacreation Systems
Agres, K., Forth, J., & Wiggins, G. A. (2016) · Computers in entertainment · doi:10.1145/2967506 · Cited by 53
“An early attempt to formalize the investigation of creativity was by Arthur Koestler [1964], who formulated a general theory of human creativity that introduced the idea of bisociation : a blending of ideas drawn from previously unrelated semantic matrices of thought.”
BackgroundStudent teachers’ conceptions of creativity in the secondary music classroom
Kokotsaki, D. (2011) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2011.04.001 · Cited by 48
Innovation 101: Promoting Undergraduate Innovation Through a Two-Day Boot Camp
West, R. E., Tateishi, I., Wright, G. A., & Garrett, M. F. (2012) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2012.677364 · Cited by 48
“Several studies have documented its reliability and validity (e.g., Kim, 2006; Plucker, 1999; Torrance, 1972; Trentham, 1975; Yamada & Tam, 1996).”
BackgroundIncentivizing Creativity: A Large-Scale Experiment with Performance Bonuses and Gifts
Bradler, C., Neckermann, S., & Warnke, A. J. (2019) · Journal of Labor Economics · doi:10.1086/702649 · Cited by 59
Creative cognition: A multidisciplinary and integrative framework of creative thinking
Pinkow, F. (2022) · Creativity and Innovation Management · doi:10.1111/caim.12541 · Cited by 63
Conversations and idea generation: Evidence from a field experiment
Hasan, S., & Koning, R. M. (2019) · Research Policy · doi:10.1016/j.respol.2019.103811 · Cited by 47
Neville, R. D., & Makopoulou, K. (2020) · European Physical Education Review · doi:10.1177/1356336x20939586 · Cited by 62
“Critically, such a nonverbal approach has been widely used and found to be reliable and valid in other studies using experimental protocols to assess creativity (see for example Kim, 2006).”
Diverse Perspectives of Creativity Testing
Lemons, G. (2011) · journal for the education of the gifted · doi:10.1177/0162353211417221 · Cited by 56
Who Is Considered Gifted From a Teacher’s Perspective? A Representative Large-Scale Study
Golle, J., Schils, T., Borghans, L., & Rose, N. (2022) · Gifted Child Quarterly · doi:10.1177/00169862221104026 · Cited by 48
“…(i.e., the items), it is possible to infer that giftedness is related to openness for ideas as well as curiosity or need for cognition (i.e., typical investment traits; see, for example, Meier et al., 2014; Tibken et al., 2022), and divergent thinking as one aspect of creativity (see Kim, 2006).”
BackgroundIntelligent Testing With Torrance
Kaufman, J. C., & Baer, J. (2006) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1207/s15326934crj1801_11 · Cited by 45
“Torrance did not design his tests for the use to which they are most commonly put these days—identification of students for gifted/talented programs (Kim, 2006).”
BackgroundIndividuals with a gifted/attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder diagnosis
Lee, K. M., & Olenchak, F. R. (2014) · Gifted Education International · doi:10.1177/0261429414530712 · Cited by 45
“Creativity, another form of giftedness, is usually assessed through the Torrance Tests of Creativity (Kim, 2006; Lissitz and Willhoft, 1985), a standardized measure of creativity for visual and written mediums.”
MethodSex differences in expressive drawing
Picard, D., & Boulhais, M. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.07.017 · Cited by 50
A Decline in Creativity? It Depends on the Domain
Weinstein, E., Clark, Z., DiBartolomeo, D. J., & Davis, K. S. (2014) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2014.901082 · Cited by 43
“This decline in out-of-the-box elements in fiction writing contributes to an impression of reduced originality and, perhaps, a shift toward premature closure (i.e., away from psychological openness; Kim, 2006) in the later set.”
BackgroundMethodCheating and incentives in a performance context: Evidence from a field experiment on children
Alan, Ş., Ertaç, S., & Gümren, M. (2019) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2019.03.015 · Cited by 44
“This task is designed to test the ability to think divergently3 and is a widely used measure of creativity (Kim, 2006; Almeida et al., 2008).”
Opening the mind through the body: The effects of posture on creative processes
Andolfi, V. R., Nuzzo, C. D., & Antonietti, A. (2017) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2017.02.012 · Cited by 49
Kudrowitz, B. M., & Dippo, C. (2013) · Journal of Integrated Design and Process Science · doi:10.3233/jid-2013-0018 · Cited by 49
The assessment of creativity in creativity/psychopathology research – a systematic review
Thys, E., Sabbe, B., & Hert, M. A. F. D. (2014) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2013.877384 · Cited by 47
“The TTCT is the most widely used and researched instrument in education and elsewhere and has shown excellent reliability (interrater reliability >.90) and validity (predictive validity coefficient .7; Cropley, 2000; Kim, 2006).”
BackgroundInvestigating design: A comparison of manifest and latent approaches
Cash, P. J., & Snider, C. M. (2014) · Design Studies · doi:10.1016/j.destud.2014.02.005 · Cited by 42
“This can prove very complex, and is debatable even for widely-‐used schema such as the TTCT (Kim, 2006).”
On the Dependability and Feasibility of Layperson Ratings of Divergent Thinking
Hass, R. W., Rivera, M., & Silvia, P. J. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01343 · Cited by 41
“For the Consequences task, the top anchor was designed to capture imagination and elaboration, the latter being a scoring system sometimes used for items from the Torrance Tests (Kim, 2006).”
MethodTocci, N., Scibinetti, P., Mazzoli, E., Mavilidi, M. F., Masci, I., Schmidt, M., & Pesce, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.806065 · Cited by 45
“It consists of three timed pencil and paper picture construction and completion activities lasting 10 min each with 1 min break between tasks for a total working time of about 30 min (for more information: Torrance and Ball, 1984; Torrance, 1988; Cramond et al., 2005; Kim, 2006).”
MethodChang, J.-H., Chen, H., Hsu, C.-C., Chan, Y., & Chang, Y.-L. (2015) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/a0039527 · Cited by 45
“We used this figure-drawing test rather than verbal based test because previous studies revealed that figure-drawing test has been shown to be less biased in terms of language and verbal ability (Kim, 2006; Torrance, 1977).”
MethodCultural Bias in Assessment: Can Creativity Assessment Help?
Kim, K. H., & Zabelina, D. L. (2015) · The international journal of critical pedagogy · Cited by 40
Self-citationCreativity and the Big Five Personality Traits
Hornberg, J., & Reiter‐Palmon, R. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316228036.015 · Cited by 42
Effectiveness of a “Grass Roots” Statewide Enrichment Program for Gifted Elementary School Children
Golle, J., Zettler, I., Rose, N., Trautwein, U., Hasselhorn, M., & Nagengast, B. (2017) · Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness · doi:10.1080/19345747.2017.1402396 · Cited by 49
“Answers were checked for meaningfulness and duplicates before calculating the sum of all answers (representing “fluency,” see Kim, 2006).”
BackgroundKrumm, G., Aranguren, M., Arán Filippetti, V., & Lemos, V. (2016) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.76 · Cited by 39
Managerial creative problem solving and the Big Five personality traits
Myszkowski, N., Storme, M., Davila, A., & Lubart, T. (2015) · Journal of Management Development · doi:10.1108/jmd-12-2013-0160 · Cited by 39
The Association between Resting Functional Connectivity and Visual Creativity
Li, W., Yang, J., Zhang, Q., Li, G., & Qiu, J. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep25395 · Cited by 42
Hernández, D., & Kuzhabekova, A. (2019) · High Ability Studies · doi:10.1080/13598139.2019.1601071 · Cited by 39
Peña, J., Sampedro, A., Ibarretxe‐Bilbao, N., Zubiaurre‐Elorza, L., & Ojeda, N. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-43626-4 · Cited by 38
The contribution of divergent and convergent thinking to visual creativity
Wang, X., Hommel, B., Colzato, L. S., He, D., Ding, K., Liu, C., Qiu, J., & Chen, Q. (2023) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101372 · Cited by 47
“As for the visual creativity, every drawing was evaluated on originality, and title originality from 0 to 3 which X. Wang et al. Thinking Skills and Creativity 49 (2023) 101372 were adapted from TTCT (Gao et al., 2017; Kim, 2006; Torrance, 1966; Wu et al., 2021).”
MethodGender Differences in the Creativity–Academic Achievement Relationship: A Study from China
Zhang, W., Ren, P., & Deng, L. (2018) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.387 · Cited by 37
The Controversial Effect of Age on Divergent Thinking Abilities: A Systematic Review
Fusi, G., Lavolpe, S., Crepaldi, M., & Rusconi, M. L. (2020) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.461 · Cited by 41
Diagnosing the creativity of designers: individual feedback within mass higher education
Jeffries, K. K. (2007) · Design Studies · doi:10.1016/j.destud.2007.04.002 · Cited by 37
Why do we enjoy creative tasks? Results from a multigroup randomized controlled study
Bujacz, A., Dunne, S., Fink, D., Gatej, A.-R., Karlsson, E., Ruberti, V., & Wronska, M. K. (2015) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2015.11.002 · Cited by 45
Creative problem solving in primary school students
van Hooijdonk, M., Mainhard, T., Kroesbergen, E. H., & van Tartwijk, J. (2023) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2023.101823 · Cited by 54
Ates, C. B., & Aktamış, H. (2024) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2024.101471 · Cited by 61
The power of individual-level drivers of inventive performance
Zwick, T., Frosch, K., Karin Hoisl, C., & Harhoff, D. (2016) · Research Policy · doi:10.1016/j.respol.2016.10.007 · Cited by 36
“The validity of this test has been confirmed in a large number of studies (Sternberg, 1999; Kim, 2006).”
Takeuchi, H., Taki, Y., Nouchi, R., Yokoyama, R., Kotozaki, Y., Nakagawa, S., Sekiguchi, A., Iizuka, K., Hanawa, S., Araki, T., et al. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116825 · Cited by 36
“However, the effect size of the relationship between divergent thinking performance and “real-life” creative achievement tends to be weak in general (for review, s e Kim, 2006).”
Using Open-ended Problem-solving Tests to Identify Students’ Mathematical Creative Thinking Ability
Rahayuningsih, S., Sirajuddin, S., & Ikram, M. (2021) · Participatory Educational Research · doi:10.17275/per.21.66.8.3 · Cited by 65
“According to Hokanson, the TTCT developed by Torrance and his colleagues Torrance are very popular and available in 35 languages, TTCT primarily aim to identify gifted children (Kim, 2006).”
BackgroundPrimi, R. (2014) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/a0038055 · Cited by 36
Measuring the Domain-Specificity of Creativity
Julmi, C., & Scherm, E. (2016) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.29262.25927 · Cited by 35
The Fantasy Questionnaire: A Measure to Assess Creative and Imaginative Fantasy
Weibel, D., Martarelli, C., Häberli, D., & Mast, F. W. (2017) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2017.1331913 · Cited by 36
Creativity enhancement methods for adults: A meta-analysis.
Haase, J., Hanel, P. H. P., & Gronau, N. (2023) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/aca0000557 · Cited by 46
Abraham, A., Rutter, B., & Hermann, C. (2021) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2021.105007 · Cited by 35
Neural correlates of creative thinking and schizotypy
Park, H. R. P., Kirk, I. J., & Waldie, K. E. (2015) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.05.007 · Cited by 34
On Creativity: Towards an Understanding of Creativity and its Measurements
Villalba, E. (2008) · Joint Research Centre (European Commission) · doi:10.2788/2936 · Cited by 33
Bilingualism and creativity: Benefits from cognitive inhibition and cognitive flexibility
Xia, T., An, Y., & Guo, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1016777 · Cited by 40
“Divergent thinking is the ability to produce a variety of possible answers or different solutions to a problem and is measured by fluency, flexibility and originality (Guilford, 1968; Kim, 2006; Runco, 2008; Kharkhurin, 2017).”
Backgroundde Vreede, G., Briggs, R. O., & Reiter‐Palmon, R. (2010) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720809354748 · Cited by 33
“Borrowing from the creativity literature, another measure of productivity that can be used is that of elaboration (Kim, 2006).”
MethodWhat makes a musical improvisation creative
Jordanous, A., & Keller, B. (2011) · Research Portal (King's College London) · doi:10.4407/jims.2014.02.003 · Cited by 33
Gonthier, C., & Besançon, M. (2022) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/aca0000485 · Cited by 32
de Barros, R., de Resende, L. M. M., & Pontes, J. (2025) · Journal of Open Innovation Technology Market and Complexity · doi:10.1016/j.joitmc.2025.100526 · Cited by 46
Lee, H., & Kim, K. H. (2010) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2010.523409 · Cited by 32
“The TTCT was developed by Torrance over a period of more than 40 years (see Kim, 2006a, for details).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationXie, H., Beaty, R. E., Jahanikia, S., Geniesse, C., Sonalkar, N., & Saggar, M. (2021) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118531 · Cited by 33
Miroshnik, K. G., Forthmann, B., Karwowski, M., & Benedek, M. (2023) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2023.101739 · Cited by 33
DEVELOPING A SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY TEST FOR FIFTH GRADERS
Siew, N. M., Chong, C. L., & Chin, K. O. (2014) · Problems of Education in the 21st Century · doi:10.33225/pec/14.62.109 · Cited by 32
Acar, S. (2022) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2022.2044656 · Cited by 31
“…et al. (2018) and two others were also tested to explore the possibility of better model fit without RPC because of its inconsistent factor pattern (Bart et al., 2017; Hahm et al., 2019; Humble et al., 2018; Kim & Cramond, 2004; Kim, 2006; Kim et al., 2006; Krumm et al., 2014, 2016b; Yoon, 2017).”
MethodResultInfluentialCreativity and Equity: The Legacy of E. Paul Torrance as an Upstander for Gifted Black Males
Grantham, T. C. (2013) · The Urban review · doi:10.1007/s11256-013-0257-2
“Adapted from Kim (2006) Urban Rev (2013) 45:518–538 533”
Neuropsicología del proceso creativo. Un enfoque educativo
López-Fernández, V., & Salguero, F. L. (2017) · Revista Complutense de Educación · doi:10.5209/rced.52103 · Cited by 44
“En este sentido, cabría destacar la importancia esencial que tiene una “mente abierta” a los estímulos para que la captación de la información sea provechosa (Kim, 2006).”
BackgroundNavaresse, D. O., Yauch, C. A., Goff, K., & Fonseca, D. J. (2014) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2014.929428 · Cited by 33
“Advantages of the TTCT are claimed to be its extensive norms (Center for Creative Learning, 2002), fewer limitations and cautions to apply, ease of administration, and extensive use by researchers (Kim, 2006).”
BackgroundDevelopment and Validation of Team Creativity Measures: A Complex Systems Perspective
Jiang, H., & Zhang, Q. (2014) · Creativity and Innovation Management · doi:10.1111/caim.12078 · Cited by 31
“It seems that the TTCT is a good measure of individual creativity (Kim, 2006), but is not quite suitable at the team level.”
BackgroundCheng, Y., Kim, K. H., & Hull, M. F. (2010) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/a0017430 · Cited by 31
“One limitation is that scoring Originality on the TTCT test requires culturespecific Originality Lists (Kim, 2006a).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationUrban–Rural Excellence Gaps: Features, Factors, and Implications
Hernández, D. (2018) · Roeper Review · doi:10.1080/02783193.2018.1393610 · Cited by 30
“However, other authors have considered that creativity tests, and in particular divergent thinking tests such as the TTCT, are less biased than intelligence and aptitude tests and are less dependent on students’ socioeconomic status and family background (Kim, 2006; Torrance, 1971, 1977).”
BackgroundHybrid-PjBL: Creative thinking skills and self-regulated learning of pre-service teachers
Zakiah, N. E., & Fajriadi, D. (2020) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1521/3/032072 · Cited by 50
Stefanic, N., & Randles, C. (2014) · Music Education Research · doi:10.1080/14613808.2014.909398 · Cited by 28
“Many of these tests tend to be highly correlated with verbal ability and have come under much scrutiny, most often because of limited convincing evidence for construct validity (see Kim (2006) for a review and balanced critique of the Torrance tests).”
BackgroundSome Effects of Sex and Culture on Creativity, No Effect of Incubation
Kazemian, N., Borhani, K., Golbabaei, S., & Christensen, J. F. (2024) · Empirical Studies of the Arts · doi:10.1177/02762374231217638 · Cited by 29
“Five creativity metrics, that have been proposed in the literature, were computed, following standard procedures: fl uency, fl exibility, originality, subjective creativity score, and usefulness score (Guilford, 1962; Ivancovsky et al., 2021; Kim, 2006; Torrance, 1974; Tref fi nger, 1985).”
BackgroundMethodChang, Y.-L., Chen, H., Wu, I.-C., Chang, J., & Wu, C. (2016) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2016.12.002 · Cited by 30
The Mediating Role of Cognitive Flexibility in the Influence of Counter-Stereotypes on Creativity
Zuo, B., Wen, F., Wang, M., & Wang, Y. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00105 · Cited by 31
“Today, research on creativity is continuously developing, improving its measurements (Hocevar, 1981; Kim, 2006), training people’s creativity (Scott et al., 2004), better understanding its social and cultural influences (Amabile, 1983; Shalley and Gilson, 2004), and exploring its unique cognitive…”
BackgroundPerdana, R., Rudibyani, R. B., Budiyono, B., Sajidan, S., & Sukarmin, S. (2020) · International Journal of Instruction · doi:10.29333/iji.2020.13430a · Cited by 28
Sebastian, J. L., & Huang, H. (2016) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2016.08.010 · Cited by 34
Methods in Creativity Research
Mumford, M. D., Hester, K. S., & Robledo, I. C. (2011) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-374714-3.00003-3 · Cited by 28
The Relationship Between Creativity and Attention in Adults
Carruthers, L., MacLean, R., & Willis, A. (2018) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2018.1530910 · Cited by 27
“…when the TTCT was completed 7 years after it was initially carried out by the participants, with scores on the three divergent thinking scales (fluency, flexibility, and originality) being moderately, positively related to real life creative achievement (r = .39 to .48, p < .01; Kim, 2006).”
InfluentialChang, H., & Li, T. (2025) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2025.101755 · Cited by 35
Promoting primary school students’ creativity via reverse engineering pedagogy in robotics education
Liu, X., Gu, J., & Zhao, L. (2023) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101339 · Cited by 31
Characteristics Leading Teachers to Nominate Secondary Students as Gifted in Spain
Hernández, D., Prieto, M. D., García, C. F., Bermejo, R., & Sáinz, M. (2013) · Gifted Child Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0016986213490197 · Cited by 29
“Among them, divergent thinking (DT) tests have been the most frequently used instrument in the study of giftedness (see Kim, 2006).”
BackgroundMapping associations: exploring divergent thinking through mind mapping
Leeds, A. J., Kudrowitz, B. M., & Kwon, J. (2018) · International Journal of Design Creativity and Innovation · doi:10.1080/21650349.2018.1463178 · Cited by 27
“The effectiveness of Divergent Thinking tasks has been recognized in different creativity literature (Kim, 2006; Silvia et al., 2008).”
BackgroundMetaphor creation: a measure of creativity or intelligence?
de Barros, D. P., Primi, R., Miguel, F. K., Almeida, L. S., & Oliveira, E. P. (2010) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) · doi:10.1989/ejep.v3i1.49 · Cited by 27
Le dessin de l'enfant et son usage dans la pratique psychologique
Picard, D., & Baldy, R. (2012) · Développements · doi:10.3917/devel.010.0045 · Cited by 27
Are Dyslexic People more Creative? Myth or Reality: A Meta-analysis
Gutiérrez‐Ortega, M., Torres-Quesada, M., Crespo, P., López-Fernández, V., Fariña, N., & Barbón, A. (2023) · Psicologí a Educativa · doi:10.5093/psed2023a1 · Cited by 28
“…this has not prevented divergent thinking from being one of the most studied areas of creativity (Plucker & Renzulli, 1999; Runco, 2007), and the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) (eminently divergent thinking) from being one of the most widely used instruments worldwide (Kim, 2006).”
BackgroundPicard, D. (2014) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/10.27.pms.120v10x1 · Cited by 26
“Graphic fl uency was measured using the Parallel Lines Test of Torrance's Tests of Creative Thinking (Torrance, 1966 ), a quite robust instrument for assessing divergent thinking ( Kim, 2006 ).”
MethodIntegrated STEAM education through global robotics art festival (GRAF)
Chung, C. (2014) · IEEE Integrated STEM Education Conference (ISEC) · doi:10.1109/isecon.2014.6891011 · Cited by 26
“In addition the author is interested in assessing whether the GRAF students are really learning creativity more as compared to a non-art related robotics student population using Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking [15].”
BackgroundAutomatic Creativity Measurement in Scratch Programs Across Modalities
Kovalkov, A., Paaßen, B., Segal, A., Niels Pinkwart, C., & Gal, K. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2022.3144442 · Cited by 31
Peterson, D. R., & Pattie, M. W. (2022) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2022.2110738 · Cited by 31
“Much of the extensive literature published on the topic since its introduction by Guilford and colleagues has focused on the validity of DT measures (for reviews, see: Acar & Runco, 2019; Kim, 2006, 2008; Reiter-Palmon et al., 2019; Runco, 2006; Runco & Acar, 2012; Zeng et al., 2011).”
BackgroundHow to improve creativity: a study of gamification, money, and punishment
Xu, H., & Hamari, J. (2022) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2022.2133634 · Cited by 31
“…the results of a factor analysis showed that, consistent with the fi ndings of previous studies (Almeida et al. 2008; Hirsh fi eld and Koretsky 2021; Kim 2006; Runco and Acar 2012; Said-Metwaly et al. 2018; Torrance 1966), creativity can be constructed from these four subcategories ( fl uency, fl…”
BackgroundResultToward More Comprehensive Evaluations of 3D Immersive Sketching, Drawing, and Painting
Machuca, M. D. B., Israel, J. H., Keefe, D. F., & Stuerzlinger, W. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2023.3276291 · Cited by 26
“Finally, work in this sub-category usually leverages previously proposed methodologies to evaluate the impact on creativity or the design process (e.g., AttrakDiff [89], the Creativity Support Index [90], or the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking [91]).”
MethodImplicit theories of creativity are differentially categorized by perspective and exemplar domain
Hass, R. W., & Burke, S. (2015) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2015.10.001 · Cited by 26
Creative Personality and Anticreative Environment for High School Dropouts
Kim, K., & Hull, M. F. (2012) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2012.677318 · Cited by 28
“Following Kim’s (2008a) procedures, the composite scores of four questions from the NELS: 88 were used as indicators of creative personality.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationWronska, M. K., Bujacz, A., Gocłowska, M. A., Rietzschel, E. F., & Nijstad, B. A. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.09.018 · Cited by 28
“202 Divergent thinking tasks used in his study were: (1) generating cartoon titles (n = 203 128; Sternberg, 2006), (2) listing different uses for a rubber band (n = 85; Guilford, 1967), 204 and (3) improving design of a table for people with impaired vision (n = 54; Kim, 2006).”
MethodA Reliability Generalization of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking-Figural
Acar, S., Lee, L. E., & Scherer, R. (2024) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000819 · Cited by 25
Added sugar and dietary fiber consumption are associated with creativity in preadolescent children
Hassevoort, K. M., Lin, A. S., Khan, N. A., Hillman, C. H., & Cohen, N. J. (2018) · Nutritional Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/1028415x.2018.1558003 · Cited by 27
“The TTCT has long been used in studies of creativity [40] and its reliability and validity have been investigated on multiple occasions [41,42].”
BackgroundRichard, V., Alabbasi, A. M. A., & Runco, M. A. (2017) · Journal of Genius and Eminence · doi:10.18536/jge.2017.04.02.01.07 · Cited by 24
A divergent approach to pareidolias—Exploring creativity in a novel way.
Diana, L., Frei, M., Chesham, A., de Jong, D., Chiffi, K., Nyffeler, T., Bassetti, C. L., Goebel, N., Eberhard‐Moscicka, A. K., & Müri, R. M. (2020) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/aca0000293 · Cited by 24
Cioca, L., & Nerişanu, R. A. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12051985 · Cited by 25
“94, according to TTCT-Figural Manual of 1998 [64].”
MethodKim, J. (2020) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20365 · Cited by 30
“Thus, Kim (2006) argues that the TTCT figural measures more than divergent thinking.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTandiseru, S. R. (2015) · Cited by 25
Exploring the potential and limits of a neuroscientific approach to entrepreneurship
Nicolaou, N., Lockett, A., Ucbasaran, D., & Rees, G. E. (2019) · International Small Business Journal Researching Entrepreneurship · doi:10.1177/0266242619843234 · Cited by 32
“In addition, Moore et al. (2009) demonstrated that a higher divergent-thinking score (most creativity tests are effectively tests for divergent thinking [Kim, 2006]) is associated with a smaller corpus callosum size compared to total white matter volume.”
BackgroundA Visual Remote Associates Test and Its Validation
Oltețeanu, A., & Zunjani, F. H. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00026 · Cited by 25
“Creativity batteries of tests which include both visual and linguistics tests do exist—like the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT), which contains both verbal and figural tests (Kim, 2006).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Kim, K. H.
- Corresponding author
- Kim, Kyung Hee
- ORCID
- Kim, Kyung Hee
- Venue
- Creativity Research Journal
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-01-01
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 3-14
- ISSN
- 1040-0419 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6934
- OpenAlex
- W2171882070
- Cited by
- 830
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 45 · 2025: 52 · 2024: 70 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 48 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 45 · 2017: 42 · 2016: 52 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 53 · 2013: 33 · 2012: 31
- FWCI
- 13.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Creativity Research Journal (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Creativity in Education and Neuroscience
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Keywords
- Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, creativity assessment, creativity tests, test reliability, test validity, reference values, gifted identification, Torrance, test development
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
