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Can We Trust Creativity Tests? A Review of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT)
Abstract
Dr. E. Paul Torrance, "Father of Creativity," is best known for developing the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT). The TTCT was developed by Torrance in 1966. It has been renormed 4 times: in 1974, 1984, 1990, and 1998. There are 2 forms (A and B) of the TTCT-Verbal and 2 forms (A and B) of the TTCT-Figural. However, in the scope of this review, only the TTCT-Figural was examined. The TTCT has been translated into more than 35 languages (Millar, 2002). It has become highly recommended in the educational field and is even used in the corporate world. It is the most widely used test of creativity (Davis, 1997) and is the most referenced of all creativity tests (Lissitz & Willhoft, 1985). Basic information is presented, including purposes, content area, norms, reliability, and validity. Strengths and weaknesses of the TTCT, including use of the TTCT in identifying gifted learners and suggestions for further development and improvement, are provided and discussed.
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Cited work 10.1207/s15326934crj1801_10 · retracted 2019-12-03 · notice 10.1080/10400419.2019.1647690 · this paper published 2006-01-01
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“Unfortunately, despite the unquestionable social this type of thinking has been steadily declining, especially among primary school children (Kim, 2006).”
BackgroundUnique Potential and Challenges of Students with ADHD in Engineering Programs
Zaghi, A. E., Reis, S. M., Renzulli, J. S., & Kaufman, J. C. (2016) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/p.27107 · Cited by 13
“…creative endeavors; abstractness of titles scores show how abstract and symbolic the ideas are and whether the test subjects exhibit the ability to synthesize information; resistance to premature closure scores show how open-minded the subjects are in deferring judgment (Kim, 2006; Torrance, 1998).”
BackgroundDemographic characteristics of creative workers: under-activated development potentials in Slovenia?
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“Torrance’s ba- sic aim was “understanding and nurturing qualities that help people express their creativity” (Kim, 2006, p.4).”
BackgroundBye, E., & Sohn, M. (2010) · Fashion Practice · doi:10.2752/175693810x12774625387477 · Cited by 13
“The ATTA evaluates the four properties of divergent thinking, it has established validity and reliability (Kim 2006), and it can be self-administered.”
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“With these images, a critical interpretation was made and analyzed using the answers of the students to five sets of questions (based on the components of Verbal TTCT [22]):”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialIncentivizing Creativity: A Large-Scale Experiment with Tournaments and GiftsPreprint
Bradler, C., Neckermann, S., & Warnke, A. J. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2777556 · Cited by 13
“…later incorporated in the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (Torrance, 1968, 1998), the most widely used and validated test to assess creativity (Kim, 2006).10 In the Unusual Uses Task, participants are asked to name as many, unique and unusual uses for an ordinary item, such as a tin can, as…”
MethodFlexible reconfiguration of functional brain networks as a potential neural mechanism of creativity
Li, J., Orlov, N. D., Wang, Z., Jiao, B., Wang, Y., Xu, H., Yang, H., Huang, Y., Sun, Y. H., Zhang, P., et al. (2020) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-020-00388-2 · Cited by 12
“Creative thinking and intelligence quotient (IQ) were evaluated using the figural version of Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT-Figural; Kim 2006) and the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices test (SPM; Raven 2000), respectively.”
MethodDo School Activities Foster Creative Thinking? An Analysis of PISA Results
Hernández-Ramos, J., & Araya, R. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15020133 · Cited by 12
“In this context, creative thinking has primarily been evaluated through the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT), which have proven to be a reliable and valid tool for measuring creativity in students across various educational levels (Kim, 2006).”
Calonge, D. S., & Lee), A. F. S. (. (2015) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2015.1018871 · Cited by 14
“…less success, Cropley 2000) to develop tests to measure creativity, the most commonly used being Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (Torrance 1980; Kim 2006), define, determine and identify its characteristics (Gotz 1981; Ford and Harris 1992; Feist 1998; El-Murad and West 1999; Mayer 1999;…”
MethodHahm, J., Kim, K. K., Park, S.-H., & Lee, H.-M. (2017) · Dementia and Neurocognitive Disorders · doi:10.12779/dnd.2017.16.2.48 · Cited by 12
Self-citation(2020) · İlköğretim Online · doi:10.17051/ilkonline.2021.01.017 · Cited by 12
“As the name implies, ‘creative’ drama necessitates learners to ‘create’ drama by using a literary text, a story, a dialogue or even a poem (Kelner, 1985).”
BackgroundSiegel, J. E., & Bugg, J. M. (2016) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/aca0000071 · Cited by 13
“…which asks participants to report their previously completed creative achievements in a questionnaire format (Zabelina & Beeman, 2013; Zabelina, O’Leary, Pornpattananangkul, Nusslock, & Beeman, 2015; Zabelina, Robinson, Council, & Bresin, 2012; but see Kim, 2006, for an alternative approach).”
BackgroundInfluentialVázquez, B. G. (2019) · Revista Complutense de Educación · doi:10.5209/rced.58899 · Cited by 12
“El constructo Creatividad se basó en las revisiones del Test de Pensamiento Creativo de Torrance de Amabile, principalmente de Kim (2006), y se evaluaban tres ítems: la originalidad, la creatividad, la ampliación de la información.”
BackgroundCreative Thinking Abilities: Measures for Various Domains
Hong, E. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7579-8_11 · Cited by 11
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“…ability to switch conceptual fields); fluency (the number of relevant and meaningful answers, which are relative to the ability to generate a number of pictures or objects); and originality (the number of unique ideas, which reflects the ability to produce unique or uncommon answers) (Kim, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodThe Tripartite Thinking Model of Creativity
Horikami, A., & Takahashi, K. (2022) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2022.101026 · Cited by 14
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“For the evaluation of creativity, some scales can evaluate the creativity of people or products in different fields, such as the K-DOCS Creativity Scale (K-DOCS) (Kaufman, 2012), Torrance Creativity Test (TTCT) (Kim, 2006), and the Expert Panel Rating Scale (Cropley and Cropley 2008).”
BackgroundMethodConceptions of Creativity in Elementary School Mathematical Problem Posing
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“Kim (2006) notes that various incarnations of TTCT can be useful in identifying gifted students, and recommends that “considering the multidimensional nature of the creativity concept… at least two measures [to assess creativity] should be used; that is, the TTCT and another indicator (e.g.,…”
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“The fluency scores and the matrix reasoning score were used for this purpose because these scores tend to have the strongest loadings on TTCT and intelligence factors in exploratory factor analyses [85, 86].”
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“…the Creativity Index has been challenged by subsequent studies (Bart, Hokanson, & Can, 2017; Hahm, Kim, & Park, 2016; Humble, Dixon, & Mpofu, 2018; Kim, 2006; Krumm, Filippetti, Lemos, Koval, & Balabanian, 2016, 2016; Yoon, 2017) including a meta-analysis (Said-Metwaly, Fernández-Castilla, Kyndt,…”
BackgroundCreatividad, inteligencia sintética y alta habilidad
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“The domain-general creativity measure was based on a figure-drawing test that has been shown to be less biased in terms of language and verbal ability (Kim, 2006; Torrance, 1977).”
MethodCreativity and Learners' Performance on Argumentative and Narrative Written Tasks
Zabihi, R., Rezazadeh, M., & Ansari, N. (2013) · Cited by 10
A Fuzzy Logic Software Instrument and a New Scale for the Assessment of Creativity
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“Dr. E. Paul Torrance, the author of TTCT, did not endorse the analysis of the creativity index as a measure of a person ’ s abilities, but suggested that the information obtained could be used to identify the strengths of each individual student (Kim, 2006, 2017).”
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“Nonetheless, the Torrance measure is one of the few child-focused measures, and it shows good psychometric properties (Kim, 2006).”
Background"Fourth Grade Slump in Creativity": Development of Creativity in Primary School Children
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“Indeed, Torrance’s paper has been cited fewer than 60 times as of July 2020, despite his otherwise highly influential status in the field of creativity research (e.g., Kim, 2006; Plucker, 1999; Zachopoulou et al., 2009).”
BackgroundChemistry Teachers' Views of Creativity.
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“Throughout the years, TTCT has been relevant and popular among creative researchers as the implementation and scoring system of TTCT has been polished in the year 1974, 1984, 1990 and 1998 (Kim, 2006).”
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“Interestingly, Cheng, Kim, and Hull (2010) recently found two underlying factors of the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking, one of the most-used instruments to measure creativity potential.”
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“Torrance et al. (1992) incluyó trece criterios para medir la fortaleza creativa (Kim, 2006) o puntos fuertes de la creatividad (Ferrando Prieto, 2006, p. 109): expresividad emocional, claridad narrativa, Krumm & Lemos IJPR 5(2) 2012 PP. 5 - 12 acción o movimiento, expresividad en títulos, síntesis…”
BackgroundStudies of the Turkish form of the Test for Creative Thinking-Drawing Production
Toğrol, A. Y. (2012) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2012.38194 · Cited by 9
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Self-citationPromotion/prevention focus and creative performance: Is it moderated by evaluative stress?
Liu, L., Wang, L., Ren, J., & Liu, C. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.09.054 · Cited by 9
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“In addition, the less productivity of female creators in comparison to male creators (Baer and Kaufman, 2008) can further reduce the recognizability of the creative achievements of women, as there is evidence of a high correlation between quantity and quality of creative achievements (Kim, 2006).”
BackgroundAssessment of Intelligence with Creativity the Need for a Comprehensive Approach
Wechsler, S. M., Peixoto, E. M., Gibim, Q. G. M. T., Mundim, M. C. B., Ribeiro, R. K. S. M., & de Souza, A. F. (2021) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2021.1996750 · Cited by 8
“dated literature demonstrating the high predictive power of creative achievements using his measures (Benedek et al., 2014; Kim, 2006; Runco et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSemi-Automated Questions as a Cognitive Stimulus in Idea Generation
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“This resulted in a variety of creativity tests, which intended to evaluate the creative potential of individuals [37].”
BackgroundNurisalfah, R., Fadiawati, N., & Jalmo, T. (2018) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1013/1/012085 · Cited by 8
Türkiye’de Özel Yeteneklilerle Yapılan Araştırmalarda Yaratıcılık
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“The TTCT battery has been revised four times since its initial publication in 1966 (Plucker & Makel, 2010) and this constant research and updating has contributed to why the tests remain so popular and well considered in educational applications (Kim, 2006; Kaufman, Plucker, & Baer, 2008).”
BackgroundImproving creative ability of base of pyramid (BOP) students in India
Parikh, C., Maddulety, K., & Meadows, C. J. (2020) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100652 · Cited by 9
Divergent Thinking and Interview Ratings
Batey, M., Rawles, R., & Furnham, A. F. (2008) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282908322584 · Cited by 8
“A recent review (Kim, 2006) examined the validity of the Figural version of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (Torrance, 1974).”
BackgroundKarataş, S., Akçayır, G., & Gün, E. T. (2016) · Eğitim Teknolojisi Kuram ve Uygulama · doi:10.17943/etku.86524 · Cited by 8
Rewards and performance: A comparison across creative and routine tasks
Neckermann, S., Warnke, A. J., & Bradler, C. (2014) · Academy of Management Proceedings · doi:10.5465/ambpp.2014.14335abstract · Cited by 8
“6 The TTCT is the most widely used test to assess an individual’s capacity for creativity, and its validity has been confirmed in a large number of studies (Kim, 2006).”
BackgroundBradler, C. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2596478 · Cited by 7
“Originally introduced by the Guilford’s Alternative Uses Task (Guilford, 1967), it was later on also integrated in the Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (Torrance, 1968, 1998), which is known as the most widely used test to assess an individual’s capacity for creativity, and its validity has been confirmed in a large…”
BackgroundKawakubo, S., Arata, S., Suganuma, C., et al. (2025) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2025.113416 · Cited by 7
Universitas Negeri Jakarta, I., Hidajat, F. A., Haeruman, L. D., Wiraningsih, E. D., & Pambudi, D. S. (2023) · International Journal of Information and Education Technology · doi:10.18178/ijiet.2023.13.3.1836 · Cited by 17
“Discovering new concepts or ideas leads to creativity [31].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialOkamoto, H., Hartmann, M., & Kawasaki, T. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13030315 · Cited by 7
Constructing a classroom observation instrument of creative potential for primary school students
Yang, T., Wu, F., Zhang, J., & Yang, X. (2023) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101317 · Cited by 7
Guentulle, V., Nussbaum, M., Castillo, F., Chiuminatto, P., Spector, J. M., & Rojas, M. (2024) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2024.101636 · Cited by 7
Xu, X., Chen, Y., Ye, X., Zhang, J., Luan, J., & Li, Y. (2024) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.1529 · Cited by 7
Catalana, S. M. (2020) · International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning · doi:10.20429/ijsotl.2020.140114 · Cited by 11
“The TTCT-Figural displays adequate reliability and validity (Kim, 2006; Treffinger, 1985), and scores on the TTCT-Figural predict ( r= .33) creative achievement better than any other measure of creative or divergent thinking (Kim, 2008).”
BackgroundAre the Verbal TTCT Forms Actually Interchangeable?
Grajzel, K., Dumas, D., & Acar, S. (2022) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.556 · Cited by 7
Development and validation of a measure assessing children's creative practice ability in music
Jiang, H., Wing, C. K., & Tan, W. H. (2023) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101446 · Cited by 7
The ISI Change phenomenon: When contradicting one stereotype changes another
Maris, S., & Hoorens, V. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.01.001 · Cited by 7
Effects of Chronotype and Synchrony/Asynchrony on Creativity
Roeser, K., Riepl, K., Randler, C., & Kübler, A. (2015) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000163 · Cited by 7
Metáforas e pensamento divergente: criatividade, escolaridade e desempenho em Artes e Tecnologias
David, A. P., Morais, M. D. F., Primi, R., & Miguel, F. K. (2014) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 7
Alhusaini, A. A., & Maker, C. J. (2015) · Gifted and Talented International · doi:10.1080/15332276.2015.1137452 · Cited by 7
“In addition, Kim (2006) found that the frequencies of different responses changed from 1984 to 2006 by analyzing students’ responses qualitatively.”
BackgroundPENGEMBANGAN TES KETERAMPILAN BERPIKIR KREATIF
Redhana, I. W. (2015) · Jurnal Pendidikan dan Pengajaran · doi:10.23887/jppundiksha.v48i1-3.6915 · Cited by 7
Sierra‐Siegert, M., Jay, E.-L., Florez, C., & Garcia, A. E. (2016) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.168 · Cited by 8
The “How” and the “Why” of Restoring Goal-Pursuit after a Failure
Gorlin, E. I., & Teachman, B. A. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.5127/jep.051015 · Cited by 7
“…of Creative Thinking – Unusual Uses test (Torrance, 1966) is a widely used test for assessing creative reasoning, with good reliability and validity (Kim, 2006), in which participants are asked to name as many possible uses as they can for a mundane object (either a “paper clip” or a “brick” in…”
BackgroundZhao, G., Wang, D., Chen, Q., Shen, Y., Han, W., Xiong, Y., & Jiang, S. (2017) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2017.89102 · Cited by 7
“, 2016; Giancarlo, Blohm, & Urdan, 2004; Gorton & Hayes, 2014; Rickles, Schneider, Slusser, Williams, & Zipp, 2013; Saadati, Tarmizi, & Bayat, 2010; Stein, Haynes, Redding, Ennis, & Cecil, 2007), creative thinking (Doppelt, 2009; Kim, 2006; Torrance, 1974) and reflective thinking (van Velzen, 2004; YuekMing & Manaf, 2…”
Percepción de la creatividad en niños, padres y pares: efectos en la producción creativa
Krumm, G., Vargas-Rubilar, J., Lemos, V., & Oros, L. B. (2015) · Pensamiento Psicológico · doi:10.11144/javerianacali.ppsi13-2.pcnp · Cited by 7
Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, M., Rabi, N. M., Masran, M. N. B., & Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, M. (2016) · International Journal of ADVANCED AND APPLIED SCIENCES · doi:10.21833/ijaas.2016.11.012 · Cited by 7
Ibrahim, B., De Miranda, M. A., Gloeckner, G. W., Siller, T. J., Makela, C. J., & Folkestad, J. E. (2007) · UTHM Institutional Repository (Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia) · doi:10.25675/3.022037 · Cited by 7
The Impact of Visual Art Instruction On Student Creativity
Parker, J. S. (2008) · ScholarWorks (Walden University) · Cited by 7
Tao, Y., Wang, D., & Chen, G. (2026) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.70031 · Cited by 6
Estimation of Cronbach reliability based on sample size, gender, and the grades
Ikhsanudin, I., Subali, B., Retnawati, H., et al. (2024) · International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE) · doi:10.11591/ijere.v13i2.24895 · Cited by 6
“Although creativity tests are commonly used, they still need to be reviewed on an ongoing basis to investigate their quality [8].”
BackgroundWhat happens when flow ends? How and why your creativity is limited after a flow experience
Lavoie, R. V., & Main, K. (2024) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-06591-4 · Cited by 10
“However, flexibility is not as critical to figural (visual-spatial) creativity (Torrance et al., 1966 ; Kim, 2006a ).”
How might creative problem-solving be related to prosocial motivation? An exploratory pilot study
Paek, S. H., Katz‐Buonincontro, J., Park, H. J., Osuagwu, O., & Hurwich, T. (2024) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2024.102606 · Cited by 6
A Comparative Test of Creative Thinking in Preschool Children and Dolphins
Melzer, D. K., Yeater, D., Bradley, M., Hill, H., Guerra, G., Salazar, K., Bolton, T. T., & Dudzinski, K. M. (2022) · Animal Behavior and Cognition · doi:10.26451/abc.09.03.07.2022 · Cited by 6
“For children, an increase in creativity or opportunities to practice variable thinking has been shown to have future implications for academic achievement and cognitive development (Gajda et al., 2017; Kaufman & Baer, 2006; Kim, 2006; Runco & Chand, 1995).”
BackgroundA conceptual graph-based model of creativity in learning
Paaßen, B., Dehne, J., Krishnaraja, S., Kovalkov, A., Gal, K., & Niels Pinkwart, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.1033682 · Cited by 6
“The number (fluency), distinctness (flexibility), and novelty (originality) of these ideas is then used as a measure of creativity (Torrance, 1972; Kim, 2006).”
BackgroundMethodÜlger, K. (2023) · Creativity Studies · doi:10.3846/cs.2023.14593 · Cited by 6
Shen, Y. (2014) · Lincoln (University of Nebraska) · Cited by 6
Utami, A. F., Masrukan, M., & Arifudin, R. (2014) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · doi:10.15294/kreano.v5i1.3279 · Cited by 6
Metadata
- Authors
- Kim, K. H.
- Corresponding author
- Kim, Kyung Hee
- ORCID
- Kim, Kyung Hee
- Venue
- Creativity Research Journal
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-01-01
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 3-14
- ISSN
- 1040-0419 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6934
- OpenAlex
- W2171882070
- Cited by
- 830
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 45 · 2025: 52 · 2024: 70 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 48 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 45 · 2017: 42 · 2016: 52 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 53 · 2013: 33 · 2012: 31
- FWCI
- 13.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Creativity Research Journal (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Creativity in Education and Neuroscience
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Keywords
- Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, creativity assessment, creativity tests, test reliability, test validity, reference values, gifted identification, Torrance, test development
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