Generative learning processes of the brain
Abstract
This article presents a functional model of learning from teaching that, in contrast to structural models of schemata and knowledge representation, focuses on the neural and cognitive processes that learners use to generate meaning and understanding from instruction. Wittrock's model of generative learning (Wittrock, 1974a, 1990) consists of four major processes: (a) attention, (b) motivation, (c) knowledge and preconceptions, and (d) generation. Each of these processes involves generative brain functions studied in neural research and generative cognitive functions studied in knowledge-acquisition research. In this model of generative learning, the brain is a model builder. It does not transform input into output. Instead, it actively controls the processes of generating meaning and plans of action that make sense of experience and that respond to perceived realities. Within this framework, teaching becomes the process of leading learners to use their generative processes to construct meanings and plans of action.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Language is a situated, dialogic, and generative practice.
“We conceptualize language as a situated, dialogic, and generative practice [63,68,69].”
From A Systematic Review of Generative AI in K–12: Mapping Goals, Activities, Roles, and Outcomes via the 3P Model (2025) · cites this paper as [63]
Cites
Schemata: The Building Blocks of Cognition
Rumelhart, D. E. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315107493-4 · Cited by 2,584 · see citing works
On the proper treatment of connectionism
Smolensky, P. (1988) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00052432 · Cited by 2,112 · see citing works
The generation effect: delineation of a phenomenon
Slamecka, N. J., & Graf, P. (1978) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.4.6.592 · Cited by 1,659 · see citing works
Generative Processes of Comprehension
Wittrock, M. (1989) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2404_2 · Cited by 978 · see citing works
Self-citationLearning as a generative process <sup>1</sup>
Wittrock, M. C. (1974) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461527409529129 · Cited by 834 · see citing works
Self-citationHemisphere deconnection and unity in conscious awareness.
Sperry, R. W. (1968) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/h0026839 · Cited by 806 · see citing works
Learning science: A generative process
Osborne, R. J., & Wittrock, M. C. (1983) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.3730670406 · Cited by 697 · see citing works
Self-citationFreeman, W. (1989) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 573 · see citing works
The Generative Learning Model and its Implications for Science Education
Osborne, R. J., & Wittrock, M. C. (1985) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057268508559923 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Self-citationGenerative processes in reading comprehension.
Doctorow, M., Wittrock, M., & Marks, C. (1978) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.70.2.109 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Self-citationGeneration of Summaries and Analogies and Analytic and Holistic Abilities
Wittrock, M., & Alesandrini, K. (1990) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312027003489 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Self-citationGenerative Teaching of Comprehension
Wittrock, M. C. (1991) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/461686 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Teaching of Reading Comprehension according to the Model of Generative Learning
Linden, M. A., & Wittrock, M. C. (1981) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.2307/747248 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Self-citationReading as a generative process.
Wittrock, M. C., Marks, C., & Doctorow, M. (1975) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0077017 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Neuropsychology of Attention: Emotional and Motivational Controls
McGuinness, D., & Pribram, K. H. (1980) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-761050-4.50010-6 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
A Generative Model of Mathematics Learning
Wiitrock, M. C. (1974) · Journal for Research in Mathematics Education · doi:10.5951/jresematheduc.5.4.0181 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Wittrock, M. C. (1981) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-185030-2.50014-7 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Self-citationGenerative Processing of Hierarchically Organized Words
Wittrock, M. C., & Carter, J. F. (1975) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421780 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationCerebral Asymmetry and the Psychology of Man
Levy, J. (1980) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-761050-4.50013-1 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
A biofunctional model of distributed mental content, mental structures, awareness, and attention
Iran‐Nejad, A., & Ortony, A. (1984) · The Journal of mind and behavior · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Wittrock, M. C. (1980) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-761050-4.50017-9 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Self-citationGazzaniga, M. S. (1975) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/bf00314600 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Verbal and graphical strategies in the teaching of economics
Kourilsky, M. L., & Wittrock, M. C. (1987) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/0742-051x(87)90030-8 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationA nonconnectionist schema theory of understanding surprise‐ending stories
Iran‐Nejad, A. (1989) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/01638538909544723 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Education and Recent Research on Attention and Knowledge Acquisition
Wittrock, M. C. (1986) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-268330-5.50012-3 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationFunctional Organization of the Human Brain
Trevarthen, C. (1980) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-761050-4.50008-8 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Psychophysiology of learning and memory
Thomas, C. C. (1972) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/0021-9924(72)90042-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Generated meanings in the comprehension of word problems in mathematics
Peled, Z., & Wittrock, M. C. (1990) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/bf00120195 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Theobald, E. J., Hill, M. J., Tran, E., Agrawal, S., Arroyo, E. N., Behling, S., Chambwe, N., Cintrón, D. L., Cooper, J. D., Dunster, G., et al. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1916903117 · Cited by 1,387 · see citing works
Eight Ways to Promote Generative Learning
Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2016) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-015-9348-9 · Cited by 832 · see citing works
“…with testable predictions concerning instructional methods and learning strategies aimed at promoting student understanding (Fiorella and Mayer 2015; King 1994; Mayer 2014; Mayer and Wittrock 1996, 2006; Novak 2010; Sweller et al. 2011; Weinstein and Mayer 1986; Webb 1982; Wittrock 1991, 1992).”
BackgroundEffects of flipping the classroom on learning outcomes and satisfaction: A meta-analysis
van Alten, D. C. D., Phielix, C., Janssen, J. J. H. M., & Kester, L. (2019) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2019.05.003 · Cited by 635 · see citing works
“Our mind actively and dynamically constructs meaning by building relations with prior-knowledge (Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundŠkerlavaj, M., Štemberger, M. I., Škrinjar, R., & Dimovski, V. (2006) · International Journal of Production Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ijpe.2006.07.009 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
The impact of augmented reality on cognitive load and performance: A systematic review
Buchner, J., Buntins, K., & Kerres, M. (2021) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12617 · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Organizational learning culture, innovative culture and innovations in South Korean firms
Škerlavaj, M., Song, J. H., & Lee, Y.-M. (2010) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2010.02.080 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
“…aimed at achieving higher-level, i.e. double-loop (Argyris & Schön, 1996), deutero (Schön, 1975), strategic (Bhattacharya, 1985) or generative (Wittrock, 1974, 1990, 1992) organizational learning through phases of information acquisition, information interpretation and accompanying behavioral…”
BackgroundAugmented reality in informal learning environments: A field experiment in a mathematics exhibition
Sommerauer, P., & Müller, O. M. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.07.013 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
“Third, learning is an active process consisting of selecting relevant incoming information, organizing selected information into coherent mental representations, and integrating mental representations with existing knowledge (Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundThe Vocabulary‐Learning Strategies of Foreign‐Language Students
Lawson, M. J., & Hogben, D. (1996) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1996.tb00642.x · Cited by 312 · see citing works
“The more effectively the to-be-learned material is elaborated during acquisition , the more readily it will be recalled (Mayer, 1992; Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundCollaborative discourse, argumentation, and learning: Preface and literature review
Nussbaum, E. M. (2008) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.06.001 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Chin, C., & Osborne, J. F. (2010) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20385 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
A Framework for the Use of Immersive Virtual Reality in Learning Environments
Mulders, M., Buchner, J., & Kerres, M. (2020) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v15i24.16615 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
“[35] Wittrock, M.C. (1992), Generative Learning Processes of the Brain.”
BackgroundInfluentialImproving self-regulation, learning strategy use, and achievement with metacognitive feedback
Lee, H. W., Lim, K. Y., & Grabowski, B. L. (2010) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-010-9153-6 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
“Thus, one potential solution is to provide metacognitive feedback about which cognitive strategies to use and how to use them (Butler and Winne 1995; Winne 1997; Wittrock 1992).”
BackgroundPaying for high- and low-quality teaching
Schacter, J., & Thum, Y. M. (2004) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2003.08.002 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
“In addition, scientists discovered how teachers’ knowledge of students affected how teachers maintain student attention and motivate students to learn (Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundMore Than Fun and Games: Reconsidering the Virtues of Strategic Management Simulations
Zantow, K., Knowlton, D. S., & Sharp, D. C. (2005) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2005.19086786 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
“Generative learning strategies promote durable learning by helping students develop connections between course content and students’ experiences and knowledge (Wittrock, 1974, 1990, 1992).”
BackgroundMethodMOTIVATION, ENGAGEMENT, AND STUDENT VOICE
Nakkula, M. J. (2012) · Education Digest: Essential Readings Condensed for Quick Review · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Baylor, A. L. (2002) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02504991 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Learning as a Generative Activity: Eight Learning Strategies that Promote Understanding
Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2015) · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Ramapuram, J., Gregorová, M., & Kalousis, A. (2020) · Neurocomputing · doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2020.02.115 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
The impact of a learning organization on performance
Kim, K., Watkins, K. E., & Lu, Z. L. (2017) · European journal of training and development · doi:10.1108/ejtd-01-2016-0003 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Learning with a strategic management simulation game: A case study
Loon, M. K. C., Evans, J., & Kerridge, C. (2015) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2015.06.002 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
A revision of Cattell's Investment Theory
SCHWEIZER, K. W., & Koch, W. (2002) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s1041-6080(02)00062-6 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Lo, S., & Tsai, H.-H. (2022) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s22218329 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Third, people engage in active learning via selecting relevant incoming information, organizing selected information into coherent mental representations, and integrating mental representations with others’ knowledge [24].”
BackgroundAttali, Y. (2015) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.08.011 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Martin, A. J., Wilson, R., Liem, G. A. D., & Ginns, P. (2013) · The Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.1353/jhe.2013.0029 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Generative Learning Contributions to the Design of Instruction and Learning
Grabowski, B. L. (2013) · doi:10.4324/9781410609519-39 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Effectiveness of Two Generative Learning Strategies in the Science Classroom
Ritchie, D., & Volkl, C. (2000) · School Science and Mathematics · doi:10.1111/j.1949-8594.2000.tb17240.x · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Martin, A. J. (2012) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.01.002 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Bergman, E. M., de Bruin, A. B. H., Vorstenbosch, M. A. T. M., Kooloos, J. G. M., Puts, G. C. W. M., Leppink, J., Scherpbier, A. J. J. A., & van der Vleuten, C. P. M. (2015) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-015-0416-0 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Learning By Tracing Worked Examples
Ginns, P., Hu, F., Byrne, E. N., & Bobis, J. (2015) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3171 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Generative Learning: Principles and Implications for Making Meaning
Lee, H. W., Lim, K. Y., & Grabowski, B. L. (2007) · doi:10.4324/9780203880869.ch10 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Wittrock built his model around four parts based on a neural model of brain functioning (Luria, 1973) and cognitive research on the process of knowing (Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundMcCombs, B. L. (2017) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2017.00006 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Wittrock (1978, 1980, 1992) was also a visionary in recognizing the links between neurophysiology and cognition.”
BackgroundLim, K. Y., Lee, H. W., & Grabowski, B. L. (2008) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00872.x · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Three types of concept-mapping activities were designed to operationalise the different levels of generativity, ie, the degree to which learning with concept mapping involved an active generation of meaning (Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundWetton, M. A., Hill, A., & Horswill, M. S. (2013) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2013.02.013 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Ranalli, J. M. (2003) · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Teacher Thinking and Professional Action
Denicolo, P. M., & Kompf, M. (2005) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203012505 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
van Peppen, L. M., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., Heijltjes, A. E. G., Janssen, E. M., & van Gog, T. (2021) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-021-09559-0 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“…processing involves actively constructing meaning from to-be-learned information, by mentally organizing it into coherent knowledge structures and integrating these principles with one’s prior knowledge (i.e., Grabowski, 1996; Osborne & Wittrock, 1 3 1983; Wittrock, 1974, 1990, 1992, 2010).”
BackgroundSchwartz, R. N., & Plass, J. L. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.01.012 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“information at any given time (Plass, Moreno, & Brünken, 2010; Sweller, 1988); and, finally, that meaningful learning is an active process in which the learner must select, organize, and integrate information in order to build new knowledge structures (Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundDobrovolny, J. (2006) · Distance Education · doi:10.1080/01587910600789506 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Generative learning strategies : Both constructivism and generative learning theory emphasize the active role learners (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996 ; Fosnot, 1996 ; Grabowski, 1996 ; Winn & Snyder, 1996 ; Wittrock, 1992 ) and the importance of prior experiences (Grabowski, 1996 ; Jonassen & Reeves, 1996 ; Wittrock, 1992…”
BackgroundCognitive load of critical thinking strategies
Shehab, H. M., & Nussbaum, E. M. (2014) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.09.004 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“In addition, according to this view, argumentation may encourage students to generate relationships among concepts and with prior knowledge (Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundLondon, M., & Hall, M. J. (2011) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.20455 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Promoting creativity in the classroom: A generative view.
Pang, W. (2015) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/aca0000009 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Generative learning strategies do not diminish primary students’ attitudes towards augmented reality
Buchner, J. (2021) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-021-10445-y · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“To this end, they referred to generative learning theory, which proposes the active participation of learners during the learning process as the central condition for the successful integration of new information to long-term memory (Wittrock 1974, 1992, 2010).”
Backgroundvan Blankenstein, F. M., Dolmans, D. H. J. M., van der Vleuten, C. P. M., & Schmidt, H. G. (2012) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9252-3 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Elaboration can be defined as the generation of meaningful new relations between prior knowledge, or between prior knowledge and new information (Wittrock 1992).”
Differently structured advance organizers lead to different initial schemata and learning outcomes
Gurlitt, J., Dummel, S., Schuster, S., & Nückles, M. (2011) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-011-9180-7 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Emotion and Associated Topic Detection for Course Comments in a MOOC Platform
Liu, Z., Zhang, W., Sun, J., Cheng, H. N. H., Peng, X., & Liu, S. (2016) · International Conference of Educational Innovation through Technology (EITT) · doi:10.1109/eitt.2016.11 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“According to Wittrock’s generative learning theory [2], human learning is actually a generating process.”
BackgroundVolumetric Video in Augmented Reality Applications for Museological Narratives
O’Dwyer, N., Zerman, E., Young, G. W., Smolić, A., Dunne, S., & Shenton, H. (2021) · Journal on Computing and Cultural Heritage · doi:10.1145/3425400 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-explaining steps in problem-solving tasks to improve self-regulation in secondary education.
Baars, M., Leopold, C., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2017) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000223 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Generative strategies are learning activities that induce learners to elaborate on the learning materials and generate new information (Fiorella & Mayer, 2016; Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundMultimedia as a means to enhance teaching technical vocabulary to physics undergraduates in Rwanda
Rusanganwa, J. (2012) · English for Specific Purposes · doi:10.1016/j.esp.2012.07.002 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Cognitive intelligence in industrial robots and manufacturing
Mukherjee, A., Divya, A., Sivvani, M., & Pal, S. K. (2024) · Computers & Industrial Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.cie.2024.110106 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Sandboxes for Model-Based Inquiry
Brady, C. E., Holbert, N. R., Soylu, F., Novak, M. J., & Wilensky, U. J. (2014) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-014-9506-8 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Our theoretical framework attends to the social dimension of constructionist learning environments by drawing on the literature of generative design (Stroup et al. 2005, 2007; Davis 2010), which takes inspiration from the learning approaches of Wittrock et al. (Wittrock 1989, 1992; Osborne and Wittrock 1985).”
MethodLikes attract: Students self-sort in a classroom by gender, demography, and academic characteristics
Freeman, S., Theobald, R. J., Crowe, A. J., & Wenderoth, M. P. (2017) · Active Learning in Higher Education · doi:10.1177/1469787417707614 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“The theory matured with later work by Von Glaserfeld (1990), Wittrock (1992), and others, who applied the earlier insights to the context of classroom teaching.”
BackgroundCrowdsourcing content creation in the classroom
Hills, T. T. (2015) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-015-9089-2 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…to lead to more effective learning outcomes than more passive approaches, for example, via the creation of summaries during reading comprehension (Wittrock 1992): in finding as opposed to reading solutions to mathematical problems (McNamara 1995), and in learning isolated facts by attempting to…”
BackgroundHu, B.-Y., Li, Y.-H., Zhang, X., Roberts, S., & Vitiello, G. (2021) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2020.103253 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Yeh, Y., & Lin, C. F. (2015) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Yang, X., Guo, X., & Yu, S. (2016) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12111 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Learning Chinese idioms through iPads
Yang, C., & Xie, Y. (2013) · Language learning & technology · doi:10.64152/10125/44319 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Language Learning & Technology 13 generative learning to work more effectively, instructors should provide activities to prompt learners to engage in elaborative processes (Wittrock, 1989) and help learners link the material to prior experiences (Wittrock, 1992; Zhong & Majchrzak, 2004).”
BackgroundThe impact of the flipped classroom on receptive and productive vocabulary learning
Kırmızı, Ö., & Kömeç, F. (2019) · Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies · doi:10.17263/jlls.586096 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Research shows that learning environments are most effective when they elicit effortful, cognitive processing from learners and guide them in actively constructing meaningful relationships rather than encouraging passive recording and storage of information (Craik &Tulving, 1975; Wittrock, 1992; Lynch 2016).”
BackgroundOrganizational learning culture and innovativeness in Turkish firms
Černe, M., Jaklič, M., Škerlavaj, M., Aydınlık, A. Ü., & Polat, D. D. (2012) · Journal of Management & Organization · doi:10.5172/jmo.2012.18.2.193 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
The Figure and the Ground of Constructive Brain Functioning: Beyond Explicit Memory Processes
Iran‐Nejad, A., Mash, G. E., & Clements, A. D. (1992) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2704_5 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
van Blankenstein, F. M. (2011) · doi:10.26481/dis.20110518fb · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Merlin C. Wittrock's Enduring Contributions to the Science of Learning
Mayer, R. E. (2010) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520903433547 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“In his 1974 Educational Psychologist article, Wittrock emphasized the importance of “learning with understanding which is defined by long-term memory plus transfer to conceptually related problems” (p. 89).”
BackgroundInfluentialŠkerlavaj, M., Su, C., & Huang, M. (2013) · Journal of East European Management Studies · doi:10.5771/0949-6181-2013-1-97 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Centering around the functioning of an organisation (Schein 1992), these organisational norms and values aim to support various forms of higher-level organisational learning, such as doubleloop (Argyris/Schön 1996), strategic (Bhattacharya 1985), or generative learning (Wittrock 1974, 1992).”
BackgroundReporting Design Principles for Effective Instruction of Writing: Interventions as Constructs
Rijlaarsdam, G., Janssen, T., Rietdijk, S., & van Weijen, D. (2017) · BRILL eBooks · doi:10.1163/9789004270480_013 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Generative thinking is not only an ingredient of learning-to-write but of learning in general (Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundThe effect of learning strategy on computer anxiety
Namlu, A. G. (2003) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0747-5632(03)00003-7 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Learning is a process that an individual realizes through the establishment of a relationship between previous knowledge and exprerience stored in the memory, and newly encountered ones (Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundFocusing Attention with Temporal Sound
Mann, B. L. (1995) · Journal of Research on Computing in Education · doi:10.1080/08886504.1995.10782142 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Assessment strategies: what is being measured in student course evaluations?
Smith, G. S. (2004) · Accounting Education · doi:10.1080/0963928032000168977 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“6In addition to these two opposing theories, there are generative learning theory (Wittrock, 1992) and cooperative learning (Davidson and Worsham, 1992).”
BackgroundDiagrams in Contracts: Fostering Understanding in Global Business Communication
Passera, S., Kankaanranta, A., & Louhiala-Salminen, L. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication · doi:10.1109/tpc.2017.2656678 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Colliot, T., & Jamet, É. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.11.037 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Wilhelm-Chapin, M. K., & Koszalka, T. A. (2020) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-019-00464-5 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“These processes result in the active and dynamic generation of meaning that “ leads to the reorganization and reconceptualization and to elaborations and relations that increase understanding ” (Wittrock 1992, p. 532).”
BackgroundInfluentialUse of constructivist approach in architectural education
Kurt, S. (2011) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.402 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
An Exploratory Study of Spatial Ability and Student Achievement in Sonography
Clem, D. W., Anderson, S., Donaldson, J. F., & Hdeib, M. (2010) · Journal of diagnostic medical sonography · doi:10.1177/8756479310375119 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Generative learning theory is a cognitive approach to learning that draws from the constructivist philosophy and is most applicable to this study.(7) First described by Wittrock,(7) generative learning is a form of constructivism that is based on the neural aspects of brain functioning and the cognitive process of kno…”
BackgroundMethodCheng, L., & Beal, C. R. (2019) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-019-09684-1 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“When students draw a picture while reading text content, they engage in cognitive and metacognitive processing that fosters their understanding of the learning material, and students learn deeply when engaged in generative learning activities (Mayer 2004, 2008; Wittrock 1989, 1992).”
BackgroundModel-based reasoning: using visual tools to reveal student learning
Luckie, D. B., Harrison, S. H., & Ebert‐May, D. (2011) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00016.2010 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Beyond the multiple-choice exam and rote learning, challenging students to wrestle with the new ideas of science within the boundary of a concept map with responsive feedback may begin to help direct them toward expert knowledge and higher-level learning (33, 35, 50).”
BackgroundNawani, J., von Kotzebue, L., Spangler, M., & Neuhaus, B. J. (2018) · Journal of Biological Education · doi:10.1080/00219266.2018.1472131 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Moreover, the pre-instructional writing tasks help understand how the learners have perceived the information presented during the introductory phase and the way they relate this information to their prior knowledge (Wittrock 1992).”
BackgroundInfluentialCinquin, P.-A., Guitton, P., & Sauzeon, H. (2020) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2020.1742381 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…on the human cognitive system: The dual-coding theory (i.e. information is processed through two separate auditory and visual (Paivio, 1990)), and the generative Learning Theory (i.e. active control of the learning process to generate a meaningful learning experience (Wittrock, 1989, 1992).”
BackgroundVIRT 2 UE: A European train-the-trainer programme for teaching research integrity
Evans, N., Schmolmueller, A., Stolper, M., Inguaggiato, G., Hooghiemstra, A. M., Tokalić, R., Pizzolato, D., Foeger, N., Marušić, A., van Hoof, M., et al. (2023) · Research Ethics · doi:10.1177/17470161231161267 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Smith, J. G., & Smith, R. L. (2012) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/ec.46.3.a · Cited by 22 · see citing works
The Role of Visualization in EFL Learners’ Reading Comprehension and Recall of Short Stories
Ghazanfari, M. (2011) · doi:10.22111/ijals.2011.43 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Wang, T., Ren, X., Altmeyer, M., & SCHWEIZER, K. W. (2013) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.07.008 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Theoretical developments on learning and skill acquisition have also emphasized the importance of working memory during complex learning (Anderson et al., 1997; Paas, Van Gog, & Sweller, 2010; Sweller, 1988, 2005; Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundAssessment of student understanding using on-line discussion groups
Hein, T. L., & Irvine, S. E. (2002) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.1998.736819 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Journals and other writing activities have been well documented as a tool to help students generate ideas about the learning of mathematics and physics, and in developing problem solving skills [5,6,7,8].”
BackgroundTrespalacios, J. H. (2010) · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Teachers’ Use of YouTube in the United Arab Emirates: An Exploratory Study
Tamim, R. M. (2013) · Computers in the Schools · doi:10.1080/07380569.2013.844641 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Designing and delivering representation-focused science lessons in a digital learning environment
Cirkony, C., Tytler, R., & Hubber, P. J. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10094-z · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“The term refers to dynamic processes used to construct meaning and plans of action (Wittrock, 1992), and in this research setting such generative features are embedded in the unit design and delivery to facilitate meaning-making processes.”
BackgroundTan, C., & Huet, I. (2021) · International Journal of Innovation and Learning · doi:10.1504/ijil.2021.116566 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Lin, X., & Tan, H. (2025) · Systems · doi:10.3390/systems13100840 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
The Use of Augmented Reality for Teaching Kazakhstani Students Physics Lessons
Mukhtarkyzy, K., Abildinova, G., & Sayakov, O. (2022) · International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (iJET) · doi:10.3991/ijet.v17i12.29501 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Organizational learning culture and innovativeness in Turkish firms
Černe, M., Jaklič, M., Škerlavaj, M., Aydınlık, A. Ü., & Polat, D. D. (2012) · Journal of Management & Organization · doi:10.1017/s183336720000095x · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Girmay, S., Yliniemi, K., Nieminen, M., Linnera, J., & Karttunen, A. J. (2024) · Education for Chemical Engineers · doi:10.1016/j.ece.2024.02.002 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
An intervention study of instructional methods and student engagement in large classes in Thailand
Tolley, L. M., Johnson, L., & Koszalka, T. A. (2012) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2012.05.003 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Carnegie, J. (2015) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.14-08-0132 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Referred to as “generative processing” (Wittrock, 1992; Mayer, 2010), this type of higher-order learning can be facilitated (Chi et al.”
BackgroundAl-Khouri, A. M. (2014) · Journals & Books Hosting (International Knowledge Sharing Platform) · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Generative Learning Strategy Use and Self-Regulatory Prompting in Digital Text
Reid, A. J., & Morrison, G. R. (2014) · Journal of Information Technology Education Research · doi:10.28945/1948 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Wittrock (1992) compares this generative learning model to neural systems in the human body: “Neural systems do not transform inputs into outputs, as, for example, digestion does…this cognitive model [is] a theory of generative brain functioning, rather than an information processing model of…”
BackgroundC-TOOLS automated grading for online concept maps works well with a little help from Wordnet
Harrison, S. H., Wallace, J. L., May, D. E., & Luckie, D. B. (2004) · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Evaluation of presentation modalities in a hypermedia system
Mann, B. L. (1997) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/s0360-1315(96)00037-1 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Augmented Reality in Informal Learning Environments: Investigating Short-term and Long-term Effects
Sommerauer, P., & Mueller, O. (2018) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.24251/hicss.2018.176 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Third, learning is an active process consisting of selecting relevant incoming information, organizing selected information into coherent mental representations, and integrating mental representations with existing knowledge [18].”
BackgroundLee, K. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-74857-3_4 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Hanke, U. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1428-6_171 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Thorley, C., Baxter, R. E., & Lorek, J. (2015) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2015.1031250 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“, Bretzing & Kulhavy, 1979; DiVesta & Gray, 1972; Peper & Mayer, 1978, 1986) so that it is stored in memory in a meaningful and organised way (Wittrock, 1992; Wittrock et al., 1975).”
BackgroundReprint: Learning with a strategic management simulation game: A case study☆
Loon, M., Evans, J., & Kerridge, C. (2015) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2015.10.004 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“…answer) (Leemkuil & De Jong, 2012) in seeking new information through their own individual research and through debates with the fellow board member, and potentially assimilating and integrating the new information within their mental models and schemas (Hoffman & Goodwin, 2006; Wittrock, 1992).”
BackgroundLeveraging learning to improve disaster management outcomes
Thompson, D. D. P. (2012) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Science · doi:10.1007/s13753-012-0020-4 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
- Authors
- Wittrock, M. C.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Wittrock, Merlin C.
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 1992-09-01
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 531-541
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1969049312
- Cited by
- 343
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 25
- FWCI
- 0.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neuroscience, Education and Cognitive Function
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational methodologies and cognitive development
- Keywords
- generative learning, learning from teaching, attention, motivation, meaning generation, knowledge acquisition, brain function, cognitive processes, instructional design
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
