Cited by 573Educational Strategies and EpistemologiesInnovative Teaching and Learning MethodsEpistemology, Ethics, and Metaphysics

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 49 of the 50 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Epistemological Understanding as a Metacognitive Process: Thinking Aloud During Online Searching

Hofer, Barbara K.·2004·Educational Psychologist

DOI 10.1207/s15326985ep3901_5

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Personal epistemology has typically been conceptualized in one of two primary ways: as a cognitive developmental process or as a system of beliefs. The approach that is elaborated here is to conceive of epistemological understanding as a metacognitive process that activates epistemic theories, a multidimensional set of interrelated beliefs about knowledge and knowing. Building on the work of Flavell (1979), K. S. Kitchener (1983), and Kuhn (1999b), this article describes the rationale for conceptualizing epistemological awareness at the metacognitive level, delineates the nature of this construct, and describes how this directs methodological choices for research. This is discussed in light of a recent study of students' online searching for a simulated science assignment, investigated through the use of think-aloud protocols. Exploring students' thought processes during online searching allows examination of personal epistemology not as a decontextualized set of beliefs, but as an activated, situated aspect of cognition that influences the knowledge construction process.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1207/s15326985ep3901_5

Cites

49 of 49 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry
Flavell, J. H. (1979) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.34.10.906 · Cited by 11,282 · cited 3×
“Considering the epistemic aspects of metacognition as an important component of the process returns us to the more expansive understanding of the processes initially described (Flavell, 1979).”
Background
“The Need for Cognition.”
Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116 · Cited by 5,359
Women's Ways of Knowing: The Development of Self, Voice, and Mind
Brookes, A.-L., Belenky, M. F., Clinchy, B. M., Goldberger, N. R., & Tarule, J. M. (1988) · Curriculum Inquiry · doi:10.2307/1179565 · Cited by 4,916
Book Review: Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data
Venkatesan, M., Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1986) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.2307/3151491 · Cited by 4,364
Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years; A Scheme
Perry, W. G. (1970) · Cited by 4,179
Reliability and Predictive Validity of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (Mslq)
Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & Mckeachie, W. J. (1993) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/0013164493053003024 · Cited by 3,646
The Development of Epistemological Theories: Beliefs About Knowledge and Knowing and Their Relation to Learning
Hofer, B. K., & Pintrich, P. R. (1997) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543067001088 · Cited by 3,181
Self-citation
Dispositional differences in cognitive motivation: The life and times of individuals varying in need for cognition.
Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., Feinstein, J. A., & Jarvis, W. B. G. (1996) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.197 · Cited by 2,517
Effects of beliefs about the nature of knowledge on comprehension.
Schommer, M. (1990) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.82.3.498 · Cited by 2,215
The Skills of Argument
Kuhn, D. (1991) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511571350 · Cited by 2,094

Show all 50 references

Sorted by citations

Items 501–573 of 573

Work-based placement learning and the development of a reflective capacity
Lucas, U., & Tan, P. L. (2007)
Creencias epistemológicas, estrategias de búsqueda de información, y criterios para validar la información de la Web Epistemological Beliefs, Information-Search Strategies, and Criteria for the Validation of Web Information
Vidal, R. D. M., Haydeé, Y., Mauro, M., Eugenia, M., & Borrini, P. (2010)
VALIDANDO CONSTRUCTOS EN EPISTEMOLOGÍA PERSONAL CONSTRUCT VALIDATION IN PERSONAL EPISTEMOLOGY ASSESSMENT
Figueiras, S. C., & Castro, E. P. (2010)
ACADEMIC STUDENTS' EPISTEMIC BELIEFS AND THE EFFECT OF BACKGROUND VARIABLES ON THEM
Mokhtari, H., Panah, M. R. D., & Ahanchian, M. R. (2013) · Quarterly Journal of Research and Planning in Higher Education
Sjuk eller vaccinerad – vilket innebär störst risk? Ungdomars resonemang kring svininfluensan
Lundström, M. (2016) · Socialmedicinsk tidskrift · doi:10.62607/smt.v92i6.42524
Features of High School Students' Components of Conceptual Ecologies
Park, H.-J. (2012) · Journal of The Korean Association For Science Education · doi:10.14697/jkase.2012.32.3.502
An Investigation of High School Teachers’ Epistemic Beliefs in an Urban District
Montgomery, R. T. (2014) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network)
Epistemic Beliefs of Middle and High School Students in a Problem-Based, Scientific Inquiry Unit: An Exploratory, Mixed Methods Study
Gu, J. (2021) · Digital Commons - USU (Utah State University) · doi:10.26076/369b-20f6
The Development and Change of Teachers' Strategic Knowledge in Teachers' Online Community of Practice
Feng, T., Wang, L., & Zhou, M. (2014) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-5780-9.ch087
Promoting the development of epistemic cognition
Pluta, W. J. (2015) · doi:10.7282/t31c1zqk
The Epistemology of Young Children
Winsor, D. L. (2011) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-61350-317-1.ch002
Building Epistemic Awareness in the Early Childhood Classroom
Winsor, D. L., & Blake, S. S. (2010) · Advances in educational marketing, administration, and leadership book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-784-3.ch010
An Intervention Specialist's Journey Through the Zone of Proximal Development
Carrig, C. A. (2016) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network)
Exploring the understanding of epistemic beliefs and approaches to teaching of in-service university teachers in Colombia, South America
Daza, P., & Patricia, I. (2015) · Bangor University Research Portal (Bangor University)
Learning Theories: The Impact of Goal Orientations, Epistemic Beliefs, and Learning Strategies on Help Seeking
Schworm, S., & Gruber, H. G. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-17727-4_54-1
Differences in epistemological beliefs and learning style of liberal arts and natural science students and relationship between epistemological beliefs and learning style
윤회정, 방담이, & Kim, J.-Y. (2014) · 교과교육학연구 · doi:10.24231/rici.2014.18.4.989
Impact of Epistemological Beliefs on Hypertext Learning: A Pilot-Study
Bromme, R., Pieschl, S., & Stahl, E. (2006) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
The relationship between epistemic beliefs and knowledge contribution to online communities of practice
Teng, Y. (2010) · Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)
INFLUENCE OF METACOGNITIVE THINKING SKILLS ON SOLVING SOCIAL PROBLEM AMONG GIFTED STUDENTS IN SAUDI ARABIA
Obaid, A. S. (2017) · Global Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences · doi:10.24105/gjiss.6.3.1702
The Case for Epistemologically-Conscious Computer-Based Learning Environments
Johanes, P. (2018) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--28949
Teachers' Online Searching in Science
Brown, C. A. M. (2014) · ERA: Education and Research Archive (University of Alberta) · doi:10.7939/r3901zp0k
Entwicklung und Evaluation eines Instruments zur Erhebung des Wissenschaftsverständnisses in Physik
Schüssele, B., Stahl, E., & Mikelskis-Seifert, S. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-08644-2_8
The impact of contextual factors on the implementation of the e-education policy in previously disadvantaged areas in Cape Town: the teachers perspective
Mooketsi, B. E. (2016) · Open University of Cape Town (University of Cape Town)
Values and epistemological understanding
Ahola, S. (2018)
Co-Teaching: Loss of Professional Space from the Perspectives of Special Education and General Education Teachers.
Yates, C. A. (2018)
Students’ Metacognition and Personal Epistemology: View on Family
Tanael, J. S., & Magsino, M. A. L. (2019) · International Conference on Intervention and Applied Psychology (ICIAP) · doi:10.2991/iciap-18.2019.29
Engendering Multiliteracies Using Digital Games and Digital Literature
Bazinet, N. (2019) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-2015-4.ch003
Crenças epistemológicas acerca da aprendizagem da ciência entre professores formadores de ciências da natureza e matemática
Lyra, L. R., & Custódio, J. F. (2019) · Ensino e Tecnologia em Revista · doi:10.3895/etr.v3n2.10065
All-Subset Regression As A Means For Selection Of Self-Regulated Learning Processes Measured Using Think Aloud Protocol Data
Oswald, C. (2020) · Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) · doi:10.17615/68ye-rt64
الأهمیة النظریة والوظیفیة للمعتقدات المعرفیة للمعلم عن التلمیذ الموهوب.
محمود, ی. س., هارون, ن. ح., الشیخ, م. ع. ا., & علی, غ. ع. م. (2017) · مجلة جامعة الفيوم للعلوم التربوية والنفسية · doi:10.21608/jfust.2017.83752
التفکیر فوق المعرفی والعوامل الکبر للشخصیة والتفاؤل والتشاؤم کمنبئات بسمة ما وراء المزاج لدى طلاب الجامعة
قاسم, س. ص. ع. (2017) · دراسات تربوية ونفسية مجلة کلية التربية بالزقازيق · doi:10.21608/sec.2017.103254
Methodological Proposal for the Observation of Information Literacy
Cabra-Torres, F., Vivas, G. P. M., Castañeda-Peña, H., Barbosa-Chacón, J. W., González, L. M., & Salamanca, Ó. G. H. (2020) · Springer briefs in education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-50014-6_3
The Missing Pieces in the Puzzle of Iranian Undergraduate General Education: Quantitative Findings
Mahmoudi, H., Walker, K. D., Navehebrahim, A., Arasteh, H., & Abbasian, H. (2020) · Comparative and International Education · doi:10.5206/cie-eci.v49i1.13431
Children’s conceptions of knowledge and cognition: On the development of epistemic thinking in early and middle childhood
Zdybel, D. (2020) · Edukacja Elementarna w Teorii i Praktyce · doi:10.35765/eetp.2020.1557.10
Η εννοιολογική αλλαγή στη μάθηση της φυσικής και ο ρόλος της σχετικής με τη φυσική προσωπικής επιστημολογίας
Stathopoulou, C. (2020) · Psychology the Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society · doi:10.12681/psy_hps.23707
Creencias epistemológicas, estrategias de búsqueda de información, y criterios para validar la información de la Web Epistemological Beliefs, Information-Search Strategies, and Criteria for the Validation of Web Information
y Pedrosa, Y. H. (2010) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja)
How Do We Make Sense of Science Claims Online?
Sinatra, G. M., & Hofer, B. K. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190944681.003.0002
Self-citation
Interviews Regarding Epistemological Beliefs
Rott, B. (2021) · Freiburger empirische Forschung in der Mathematikdidaktik · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-33539-7_2
The Transference of Mindset: Middle School Student Perceptions of the Influences of Implicit Theories
Dodd, J. A. (2015)
بناء نموذج للعلاقات السببیة بین المعتقدات المعرفیة والتفکیر البنائی والاندماج الأکادیمی لدى طلبة الجامعة
فؤاد, ه., & رياض, س. ع. (2021) · مجلة البحث العلمى فى التربية · doi:10.21608/jsre.2021.89719.1352
The journey of a female Mathematics teacher in constructing her beginner teacher identity
Claassen, E. (2020) · UpSpace Institutional Repository (University of Pretoria)
Epistemic Doubt During Adolescence
Ricco, R. B. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.23091-2
مهارات التفکیر المنظومى وعلاقتها بالمعتقدات المعرفیة والمعتقدات حول الریاضیات لدى الطلاب بالمرحلة الثانویة Systemic thinking skills and its relationship with epistemological beliefs and mathematical beliefs with secondary students
البلاح, خ. ع. (2021) · مجلة بحوث و دراسات نفسية · doi:10.21608/jshp.2021.212923
Board 48: The Epistemic Beliefs of Chemical Engineering Faculty (Part I)
Tedstone, J. M., & High, K. A. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--32359
References
(2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-100545-3.16001-6
Epistemological congruency in community college classrooms: effects of epistemological beliefs on students experiences
Fruge, C. (2007) · Louisiana State University · doi:10.31390/gradschool_dissertations.966
Representaciones de aprendizaje en estudiantes que participan en un curso sobre teorías del aprendizaje
Flórez, E. O., & Álzate, Ó. E. T. (2018) · Latinoamericana de Estudios Educativos · doi:10.17151/rlee.2018.14.2.11
But What Are Students REALLY Thinking When They Do Research?
Fosmire, M. J. (2014) · Issues in Science and Technology Librarianship · doi:10.29173/istl1626
The Development and Change of Teachers' Strategic Knowledge in Teachers' Online Community of Practice
Feng, T., Wang, L., & Zhou, M. (2015) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-8632-8.ch116
Sosyal Medya Kullanımının Klinik Yansımaları: Pediatri Hemşirelerinde Bir İnceleme
Erdoğan, Ç., & Çamur, Z. (2022) · Balıkesır Health Sciences Journal · doi:10.53424/balikesirsbd.1119088
Discovering Students’ Metacognitive Awareness
Boğar, Y. (2022) · Akademisyen Kitabevi eBooks · doi:10.37609/akya.1221
Promoting the Development of Student’s Epistemic Cognition
Farida, I. A. (2023) · Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research/Advances in social science, education and humanities research · doi:10.2991/978-2-494069-35-0_96
Effect of metacognition on personal epistemology with the mediating role of theory of mind
Tanha, Z. (2023) · The Journal Of Psychological Science · doi:10.52547/jps.21.119.2303
Történelemre vonatkozó episztemológiai nézetek kontextussal összefüggő jellemzőinek vizsgálata 11. és 12. évfolyamon
Majkić, M. (2022) · doi:10.14232/phd.11380
Learning Theories: The Impact of Goal Orientations, Epistemic Beliefs, and Learning Strategies on Help Seeking
Schworm, S., & Gruber, H. G. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-17461-7_54
Exploring Taiwanese History Teachers’ Epistemic Beliefs about History
Chang, C.-C. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-58056-7_16
An Exploratory Study Of Change Management In The Irish Defence Forces For Implementing New Technologies.
Hegarty, P. (2021) · doi:10.34719/tpkh2614
Do social media epistemological beliefs and health perception impact parents’ vaccine hesitancy? A mediation analysis
Çevik, C., Yavuz, E., Çakmak, F., Ündere, R., & Cengiz, A. D. (2024) · Global Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/17579759241270956
An Account of Teachers’ Epistemological Progress in Science
Watkins, J., Coffey, J. E., Maskiewicz, A. C., & Hammer, D. (2017) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-68123-950-720251008
Exploring Bloom’s Taxonomy as a Bridge to Evaluativism
Bendixen, L. D., Winsor, D. L., & Frazier, R. (2017) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-68123-950-720251012
Exploring The Factors Contributing to Preservice Elementary Teachers’ Epistemological Worldviews about Teaching Science
Adibelli, E., & Bailey, J. M. (2017) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-68123-950-720251017
An Interview With Dr. Barbara K. Hofer
(2015) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-68123-223-220251008
Comprehending Multiple Texts
Anmarkrud, Ø., & Ferguson, L. E. (2013) · SensePublishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-6209-464-2_4
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIAL MEDIA-SPECIFIC EPISTEMOLOGICAL BELIEFS AND RATIONAL DRUG USE KNOWLEDGE AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS: A CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY
Çevik, C., & Kaptan, M. (2026) · Kocatepe tıp dergisi. · doi:10.18229/kocatepetip.1656040
Lecture et compréhension de textes contradictoires par les adolescents : Représentation et prise en compte des sources d'information
de Pereyra, G. (2016) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/5c9382e6z2dd1z4170zb241zb30be6459103
Développer les compétences argumentatives de lycéens par des débats numériques sur des Questions Socio-Scientifiques Vers une didactique de l'argumentation et de l'esprit critique
Pallares, G. V. J. (2019) · doi:10.70675/b960f79czed0dz4e71z952az439daad2ec52
L’impact de la disruption stratégique sur les politiques de ressources humaines dans les sociétés de services professionnels : l’éducation en entreprise
Jauffret, P. (2020) · doi:10.70675/bf43a886z469bz4e6ez9728zd2d8d3c0e318
Liens entre croyances épistémiques et argumentation de lycéens sur des questions socio-scientifiques : quels apports pour l’éducation à l’esprit critique ?
Checchi, K. D. (2021) · doi:10.70675/67f142d3z4017z4b9dza770z62bbb41c542d
Autonomie des élèves en physique ou en chimie et son développement : croyances des enseignants libanais de terminale scientifique
Hajjar, D. E. (2025) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/c35a85e6zdca0z4d38z90b0z064c19646369
Personal epistemology of learners in educational contexts: a bibliometric analysis of international research (1990–2025)
Bragina, E. V. (2026) · Педагогика и просвещение · doi:10.7256/2454-0676.2026.2.78851
FOSTERING SCIENCE IDENTITY IN SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS THROUGH IOT-INTEGRATED EXPERIENTIAL STEM EDUCATION IN AGRICULTURE
Phung, V. H., Phung, T. T. L., Nguyen, T. T. H., & Nguyen, T. T. P. (2026) · Journal of Baltic Science Education · doi:10.33225/jbse/26.25.351
Intellectual Humility: A Wisdom-Related Resource
Schäfer, M., & Kunzmann, U. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-16951-8_26
Rethinking learning for the meta-learner in higher education
Sanderson, P. (2014) · University Library - University of Saskatchewan (University of Saskatchewan)

Authors: Hofer, B. K.
Corresponding author: Hofer, Barbara K.
ORCID: Hofer, Barbara K.
Venue: Educational Psychologist
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2004-01-01
Volume: 39
Issue: 1
Pages: 43-55
ISSN: 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
1532-6985
DOI: 10.1207/s15326985ep3901_5
OpenAlex: W1963612400
Cited by: 573
References: 50
Citations by year: 2026: 6 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 37 · 2016: 39 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 26 · 2012: 29
FWCI: 34.63
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Epistemology, Ethics, and Metaphysics
Keywords: personal epistemology, epistemic theory, metacognition, epistemic awareness, web search, think-aloud, knowledge construction, situated cognition

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Epistemological Understanding as a Metacognitive Process: Thinking Aloud During Online Searching

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks