The DOI matches its Crossref record; 47 of the 47 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 11 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
On Distinguishing Epistemic from Pragmatic Action
Open accessAbstract
We present data and argument to show that in Tetris—a real‐time, interactive video game—certain cognitive and perceptual problems are more quickly, easily, and reliably solved by performing actions in the world than by performing computational actions in the head alone. We have found that some of the translations and rotations made by players of this video game are best understood as actions that use the world to improve cognition. These actions are not used to implement a plan, or to implement a reaction; they are used to change the world in order to simplify the problem‐solving task. Thus, we distinguish pragmatic actions—actions performed to bring one physically closer to a goal—from epistemic actions—actions performed to uncover informatioan that is hidden or hard to compute mentally. To illustrate the need for epistemic actions, we first develop a standard information‐processing model of Tetris cognition and show that it cannot explain performance data from human players of the game—even when we relax the assumption of fully sequential processing. Standard models disregard many actions taken by players because they appear unmotivated or superfluous. However, we show that such actions are actually far from superfluous; they play a valuable role in improving human performance. We argue that traditional accounts are limited because they regard action as having a single function: to change the world. By recognizing a second function of action—an epistemic function—we can explain many of the actions that a traditional model cannot. Although our argument is supported by numerous examples specifically from Tetris, we outline how the new category of epistemic action can be incorporated into theories of action more generally.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The paper argues that Tetris players perform some rotations and translations not to advance a physical goal but to simplify cognition, introducing epistemic actions as distinct from pragmatic actions. A classical sequential information-processing model and an interleaving variant fail to explain extra rotations and translate-to-wall routines, which are better explained as actions that uncover information, reduce mental rotation, or verify placement.
Key findings
- Players rotate zoids more than expected for purely pragmatic placement: each zoid is rotated more than half its possible rotations; for a shape with four distinct orientations, the expected average would be 1.5 rotations, but observed rotations exceed this. Rotations sometimes begin before 100 ms, before the zoid is fully visible.
- Early rotation can expose hidden parts 150 to 300 ms earlier than waiting for natural appearance; partially hidden zoids ambiguous in both shape and position are more likely to be rotated than those ambiguous in shape alone, though no player reported noticing that zoids begin falling in different columns.
- Physical rotation of a zoid 90° can take as few as 100 ms, whereas mental rotation of a zoid 90° is estimated at 800 to 1200 ms. The translate-to-wall verification routine occurs in about 1% of drops; experts drop a zoid on average 15.65 squares from resting position ordinarily versus 20.05 squares after the translate routine, with intermediate players 13.18 versus 19.04 and advanced players 13.69 versus 19.33.
- The translate-to-wall routine moves the zoid away from the intended column, so it cannot be a pragmatically good move; its function is to verify the column and reduce error, and higher drops are more likely to be verified this way.
Methods
- Design: Tetris was used as a real-time, interactive video game domain; the authors implemented a computational laboratory to unobtrusively record the timing of all keystrokes and game situations, collected tachistoscopic mental rotation tests, and designed and implemented the RoboTetris expert system to compare human and machine performance.
- Sample: the mental rotation pilot had three Tetris players—one intermediate, one advanced, and one expert—each seeing eight presentations of each possible pair of L-shaped or S-shaped zoids; human gameplay data came from subjects playing Tetris.
- Analysis: a classical four-phase information-processing model was constructed (bitmap representation, chunked symbolic representation, placement computation, motor plan computation), then relaxed to allow cascade/interleaving; model predictions such as expected rotation counts were compared with observed keystroke timing and frequency, and deviations were interpreted as epistemic actions.
Limitations
- The paper states it is often hard to prove that an agent performs a particular action for epistemic rather than pragmatic reasons, because an action can serve both epistemic and pragmatic purposes simultaneously, making the relative influence difficult to quantify.
- The paper states it is an open question whether agents use multiple-perspective representations of zoids; the mental rotation data are described as pilot data from only three players, so the mental rotation time estimates are preliminary.
- Evident from the text: many epistemic interpretations are inferred from timing and behavioral regularities rather than direct experimental manipulation, and the mental rotation comparison rests on a very small sample.
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Claims the paper makes
74 Own interpretation · 18 No basis given · 15 Own result · 4 Sources not found · 2 No full text of the sources · 1 Own method
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In the paper
“By rotating an emerging zoid, players can expose its hidden parts, thereby uncovering its complete visual image 150 to 300 ms earlier than if they waited for it to appear naturally.”
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In the paper
“We have observed that occasionally a zoid will be rotated very early (before 100 ms), well before we would expect an agent to have any good idea of where to place the zoid.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“As shown in Table 1, experts drop a zoid, on average, when it is about 13 squares from its rest- ing position.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The shortest time between keystrokes in our data is about 75 ms”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“as shown in Figure 15, the greater the drop distance, the more likely the drop will be verified using the translate-to-wall routine.”
- Also stated in: § 546 KIRSH AND MAGLIO · plain
“we found that the higher the drop, the more often the translate-to-wall routine is used.”
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- Also stated in: § 546 KIRSH AND MAGLIO · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rotations and translations occur in abundance, almost from the moment a zoid enters the Tetris screen.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the average time between keystrokes is around 250 ms”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Our observations, however, indicate that agents learn qualitatively different behavioral tricks.”
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In the paper
“Our data show that a player is more likely to rotate a partially hidden zoid that is ambiguous in both shape and position than one ambiguous in shape alone.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“But we have found at least one unambiguously epistemic use of transiation: to verify judgment of the column of a zoid.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 17
- It may state two separate claims as one. 8
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“In fewer than 10 hours, a newcomer can play at an intermediate level.”
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In the paper
“Agents learn how to expose information early, how to prime themselves to recognize zoids faster, and how to perform external checks or verifications to reduce the uncertainty of judgments.”
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“This is particularly clear given that at 100 ms, the zoid is not yet completely in view, and sometimes the agent cannot even reliably guess the zoid's shape.”
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“Some players do report having hot spots in mind before an episode begins.”
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“P emerges in column 4, and R emerges in column 5”
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“First, it is a fast, repetitive game requiring split-second decisions of a perceptual and cognitive sort.”
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“In such studies, actions are defined as transformations in physical or social space.”
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In the paper
“There are only four possible actions a player can take: translate a zoid right, translate left, rotate, and drop.”
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“Because time is at a premium in this game, a standard perfor- mance model would predict that players develop strategies that minimize the number of moves, creating sequences of pragmatic actions which head directly toward goal states.”
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In the paper
“The effects of rotating a zoid are wholly determinate.”
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“The only certain way to get information about new candidates into the iconic buffer is through perception.”
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In the paper
“In Phase Three, players determine where to put the zoid.”
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In the paper
“there are a host of separate brain regions involved in encoding the bitmap features in the iconic buffer. Some of these have close connections to motor cortex (Felleman & Van Essen, 1991; Sereno & Allman, 1991).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Felleman & Van Essen, 1991 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sereno & Allman, 1991
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In the paper
“In Phase Three-the decision phase-rotation also serves a variety of epistemic functions.”
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In the paper
“By definition, it requires moving the zoid away from the currently intended column, and hence it cannot be a pragmatically good move.”
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In the paper
“Of course, such epistemic procedures may be cached, but they are not pragmatic procedures; they are procedures that direct the agent to exploit the environment to make the most of his or her limited cognitive resources.”
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None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“standard accounts of skill acquisition explain enhanced performance as the result of chunking, cach- ing, or compiling (Anderson, 1983; Newell, 1990; Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981; Reason, 1990).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Anderson, 1983
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Newell, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981; Reason, 1990
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- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is clearly in the interest of a player to identify the complete shape as soon as possible.”
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In the paper
“The processing model this suggests to us is a significant departure from classical theories of action. Its chief novelty lies in allowing individual func- tional units inside the agent to be in closed-loop interaction with the outside world.”
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In the paper
“the greater the drop height, the more in- formative the verification and the less risky (costly) the action.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is not outrageous to suppose that there is motor involvement in selective attention since there already exists a close connection between attention and the oculo- motor system responsible for saccades.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This kind of model follows the distributed framework proposed by Minsky (1986).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Minsky (1986)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The authors state this as an assumption.
Tetris cognition proceeds in four major phases.
“It is based on a classical information-processing model of expertise based on the sup- position that Tetris cognition proceeds in four major phases:”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The model is fully sequential: Phase Two is completed before Phase Three begins, and Three is completed before Four begins.
“As we have stated it, the model is fully sequential: Phase Two is completed before Phase Three begins, and Three is completed before Four begins.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Each zoid emerges in a random orientation, and on average any zoid can be expected to be placed in any of its orientations with equal probability.
“This follows because each zoid emerges in a random orientation, and on average, any zoid can be expected to be placed in any of its orientations with equal probability.”
The paper relies on this without support.
When a zoid first enters at the top of the screen, only a fraction of its total form is visible.
“When a zoid first enters at the top of the screen, only a fraction of its total form is visible.”
The paper relies on this without support.
At medium speed, a zoid descends at a rate of one square every 150 ms.
“At medium speed, a zoid descends at a rate of one square every 150 ms.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The close coupling between attention and saccades is already accepted.
“The close coupling between attention and saccades is already accepted”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Matching is a primitive process in working memory: Zoid chunk and contour chunk can be compared and matched only if they are explicitly represented in working memory.
“So far we have assumed that matching is a primitive process in working memory: Zoid chunk and contour chunk can be compared and matched only if they are explicitly represented in working memory.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The local effects of an action in Tetris are totally determinate, with no hidden states, exogenous influences, or other agents to change the result of hitting the rotate key.
“The property of Tetris which makes such a strategy pay off is that the local effects of an action are totally determinate. There are no hidden states, exogenous influences, or other agents to change the result of hitting the rotate key.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Exploratory epistemic actions (Kirsh and Maglio, 1994) are performed to unveil hidden information or to gain insight that would otherwise require a great deal of mental computation.”
From Physical and Virtual Tools: Activity Theory Applied to the Design of Groupware (2002) · cites this paper as Kirsh and Maglio, 1994
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Empirically, such externalisations have been shown to improve problem-solving accuracy as well as speed (Kirsh & Maglio, 1994).”
From Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory (2021) · cites this paper as Kirsh & Maglio, 1994
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Hence, cognitive offloading with technical tools might enable performance beyond internal cognitive limitations and thus increase immediate performance (Kirsh & Maglio, 1994; Salomon & Perkins, 2005).”
From Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory (2021) · cites this paper as Kirsh & Maglio, 1994
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Kirsh and Maglio (1994) argue that it is cognitively more economical to rotate the figure on screen by pushing a controller button than to mentally simulate the correct rotation.”
From The Cognitive Architecture of Digital Externalization (2023) · cites this paper as Kirsh and Maglio (1994)
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ 538 KIRSH AND MAGLIO
“As shown in Table 1, experts drop a zoid, on average, when it is about 13 squares from its rest- ing position. On those occasions when they also perform the translate-to- wall routine, the zoid is dropped, on average, from about 19 squares above its resting position”
§ 538 KIRSH AND MAGLIO
“Intermediate Advanced Expert M Drop Distance 13.18 13.69 15.65 M Drop Distance after Translate Routine 19.04 19.33 20.05”
Citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 701–800 of 1,470
What Is It Like to Be a Dolphin? Echolocation and Subjectivity in Video Games
Ayers, W. R. (2021) · Journal of Sound and Music in Games · doi:10.1525/jsmg.2021.2.3.1 · Cited by 6
Alderoqui‐Pinus, D., & Pozo, J. I. (2013) · Revista de Psicodidáctica · doi:10.1387/revpsicodidact.6934 · Cited by 6
“The definition of epistemic actions is based on that of Kirsh & Maglio (1994): actions that use the world to improve cognition.”
BackgroundInteractive stereoscopic displays
Patterson, R. (2013) · Journal of the Society for Information Display · doi:10.1002/jsid.153 · Cited by 6
“40 Using an interactive stereo display to manipulate a virtual object(s), one could eliminate the need to manipulate the objects mentally.”
BackgroundInstructional and Contextual Effects on External Memory Strategy Use in Young Children
Fletcher, K. L., & Bray, N. W. (1997) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.1997.2403 · Cited by 6
How a freeform spatial interface supports simple problem solving tasks
Kandogan, E., Kim, J., Moran, T. P., et al. (2011) · ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI) · doi:10.1145/1978942.1979079 · Cited by 6
“Manipulation can be epistemic, in that it does not directly improve the current state to be closer to the goal state, in contrast to pragmatic steps taken to solve a problem directly [13].”
BackgroundGrappling With Movement Models
Norman, S. J. (2014) · doi:10.1145/2617995.2618019 · Cited by 6
“In live performance contexts, epistemic action [16] differs radically from that implemented during everyday utilitarian (or vacuously idle) involvement with physical objects and tasks, insofar as it is harnessed to gratuituous yet virtuoso demonstrations, and miraculous embodiments of playful worlds [29].”
BackgroundThe spatial intersection of minds
Spivey, M. J. (2012) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-012-0520-6 · Cited by 6
The Effect of Visual Representation Style in Problem-Solving: A Perspective from Cognitive Processes
Nyamsuren, E., & Taatgen, N. A. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080550 · Cited by 6
“This manipulation of tokens is done either physically or mentally, depending on a player's experience [5,6].”
BackgroundPhotoMAT: A Mobile Tool for Aiding in Student Construction of Research Questions and Data Analysis
Shelley, T., Dasgupta, C., Silva, P. A., et al. (2014) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-014-9235-3 · Cited by 6
“This is arguably less efficient than toggling a counter, but we viewed placing the tags as an epistemic action (Kirsh and Maglio 1994) that externalizes the cognitive act of converting the animal(s) they are seeing into a number.”
BackgroundLindblom, J. (2015) · Cognitive systems monographs · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20315-7_3 · Cited by 6
Tollefsen, D., & Dale, R. A. C. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198735410.013.13 · Cited by 7
Shared Moral Foundations of Embodied Artificial Intelligence
Cruz, J. (2019) · Proceedings of the AAAI/ACM Conference on AI Ethics and Society · doi:10.1145/3306618.3314280 · Cited by 7
“These are actions that place in the environment information that is required to achieve a goal (Kirsh and Maglio 1994; Anderson 2003), and this is most effective when done collectively.”
BackgroundManipulating Player Performance via Music Tempo in Tetris
Hufschmitt, A., Cardon, S., & Jacopin, É. (2020) · Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play · doi:10.1145/3383668.3419934 · Cited by 6
“We can therefore benefit from the studies that have established the standard behavior of players of different skill levels [17, 19].”
ResultDecision-making in Shiatsu bodywork: complementariness of embodied coupling and conceptual inference
Kimmel, M., & Irran, C. (2021) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-020-09718-7 · Cited by 6
Learning to build physical structures better over time.
McCarthy, W. P., Kirsh, D., & Fan, J. E. (2020) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 5
Self-citationDevelopment, Resilience Engineering, Degeneracy, and Cognitive Practices
Gillett, A. J. (2021) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-021-00550-9 · Cited by 6
Can BCIs Enlighten the Concept of Agency? A Plea for an Experimental Philosophy of Neurotechnology
Haselager, P., Mecacci, G., & Wolkenstein, A. (2021) · Advances in neuroethics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-64590-8_5 · Cited by 6
Lyre, H. (2015) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-015-0231-x · Cited by 6
“Extended cognition goes a crucial step further and claims, second, that the "epistemic actions" (cf. Kirsh & Maglio, 1994) of the puzzle player not only serve to outsource internal computational processes, but that they inevitably and inextricably belong to the cognitive goings-on.”
Castro, V. F. (2016) · Pragmatics & Cognition · doi:10.1075/pc.23.2.02cas · Cited by 6
Wong, B. L. W., Seidler, P., Kodagoda, N., et al. (2018) · SpringerBriefs in criminology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89297-9_1 · Cited by 6
Working memory affine technological support functions improve decision performance
Brich, I. R., Bause, I. M., Hesse, F. W., & Wesslein, A. (2018) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.014 · Cited by 6
Harris, K. R. (2020) · Philosophical Explorations · doi:10.1080/13869795.2020.1799663 · Cited by 6
Human Agency and the Resources of Reason
Neumann, M., & Cowley, S. J. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-49115-8_9 · Cited by 6
Learners, Technology and the Brain
Underwood, J. (2008) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-89350-9_1 · Cited by 5
Two Views are Better than One: Epistemic Actions May Prime
Maglio, P. P., & Wenger, M. J. (2000) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 6
Self-citationEvaluating the effectiveness of orientation indicators with an awareness of individual differences
Ziemek, T. R., Creem-Regehr, S. H., Thompson, W. B., & Whitaker, R. (2012) · ACM Transactions on Applied Perception · doi:10.1145/2207216.2207218 · Cited by 6
“Kirsh and Maglio [48] found that players of the game Tetris, in which falling block shapes must be rotated and horizontally translated to fit as compactly as possible with already fallen blocks, would use external rotations and transformations to uncover information that was difficult to compute mentally.”
BackgroundDesigning environments for collaborative video editing
Terrenghi, L., Fritsche, T., & Butz, A. M. (2008) · International Conference on Intelligent Environments (IE) · doi:10.1049/cp:20081137 · Cited by 6
“The following sections will explore the potential of affording different types of shareability and creativity by exploiting the form factor of other digital display categories, such as interactive tabletops.”
Backgroundvan Dijk, J. (2009) · Human Technology · doi:10.17011/ht/urn.20094141409 · Cited by 6
Spurgin, K. M., & Barreau, D. K. (2008) · Cited by 6
A Distributed Cognition Framework To Compare E-Commerce Websites Using Data Envelopment Analysis
lo Storto, C. (2009) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.1063016 · Cited by 6
“representing itself, but actively by registering and storing user activities for future use, and thus functioning like an external memory [15], [44], [45].”
BackgroundThe cognitive science of Feynmen
Chandrasekharan, S. (2013) · Metascience · doi:10.1007/s11016-013-9746-x · Cited by 6
Models of Ontogenetic Development for Autonomous Adaptive Systems
Harter, D., Kozma, R., & Graesser, A. C. (2001) · Cited by 6
Intelligent Agents and Environment
Garro, A., Mühlhäuser, M., Tundis, A., Mariani, S., Omicini, A., & Vizzari, G. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809633-8.20327-0 · Cited by 7
“The distinction regarding the kind of actions taken as a reference throughout the chapter is made by focusing on the purpose of an action (Kirsh and Maglio, 1994): • epistemic actions are meant to acquire/release information, and may have or not a direct practical e ff ect, either intended or not; •…”
Shifting boundaries, extended minds: ambient technology and extended allostatic control
White, B. P., Clark, A., GUÉNIN--CARLUT, A., Constant, A., & Paolo, L. D. D. (2025) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-025-04924-9 · Cited by 6
Improving students’ achievement in organic chemistry: A systematic review of experimental studies
Febliza, A., Kadarohman, A., Aisyah, S. A., Abdullah, N. B., & Susilawati, S. (2025) · Journal of Turkish Science Education · doi:10.36681/tused.2025.020 · Cited by 5
Liao, S., & Brinner, Z. (2026) · Philosophy Compass · doi:10.1111/phc3.70075 · Cited by 5
“…and Sam Gilbert talk about the agent offloading cognition from the brain onto the body and the world via “the use of physical action to alter the information processing requirements of a task so as to reduce cognitive demand” (2016, 676; see also Kirsh and Maglio 1994; Kirsh 1995, 1996, 2010).”
Safaei, A., Rahmanian, M., Oraki, M., & Zinchenko, A. (2022) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.1177/00315125221078982 · Cited by 6
“…light on this outcome, we underscore prior fi ndings on information processing models and cognitive strategies, especially on complex tasks (see Kirsh & Maglio, 1994); these studies attributed enhanced performance after video game play to shifts in cognitive strategies rather than the…”
BackgroundStorm, B. C., & Soares, J. S. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190917982.013.82 · Cited by 22
Reenvisioning adaptive expertise as a distributed phenomenon
Martin, L., & Dixon, C. (2024) · Mind Culture and Activity · doi:10.1080/10749039.2024.2401871 · Cited by 5
“Introducing new resources – whether introduced by the problem solver or by someone else – can reconfigure what is possible, and represent a major class of adaptations (Kirsh & Maglio, 1994).”
How Physical Interaction Helps Performance in a Scrabble-like Task.
Fleming, M., & Maglio, P. P. (2015) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 4
Self-citationCognición situada y racionalidad. Hacia una ecología interactiva del razonamiento
Patrón, A. L. F. (2019) · Diánoia Revista de Filosofía · doi:10.22201/iifs.18704913e.2019.83.1618 · Cited by 5
Building compressed causal models of the world
Kinney, D. B., & Lombrozo, T. (2024) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2024.101682 · Cited by 6
Tactile reasoning: hands-on versus hands-off—What is the difference?
Takken, S., & Wong, B. L. W. (2015) · Cognition Technology & Work · doi:10.1007/s10111-015-0331-5 · Cited by 5
“Kirsh and Maglio (1994) also explain that the external actions that accompany these complementary strategies are known as epistemic actions, i.e. ‘‘… physical actions that make mental computation easier, faster, or more reliable… and performed by an agent to change his or her own computational…”
BackgroundResultAugmenting spatial skills with semi-immersive interactive desktop displays
Solovey, E., Okerlund, J., Hoef, C., Davis, J., & Shaer, O. (2015) · Augmented Human International Conference · doi:10.1145/2735711.2735797 · Cited by 5
“However, there is little empirical evidence proving whether semi-immersive 3DS desktop displays provide an advantage for spatial problem solving, as most research has shown mixed results [22, 24].”
BackgroundNatural exploration of multimedia contents
Soro, A., Deriu, M., & Paddeu, G. (2009) · International Conference on Advances in Mobile Computing and Multimedia (MoMM) · doi:10.1145/1821748.1821821 · Cited by 5
“Such attitude has been observed and its benefits demonstrated by Kirsh and Maglio[10] who dubbed it 'Epistemic Action'.”
BackgroundConocimiento experto y etnografía audiovisual: una propuesta teórico-metodológica
Muntanyola‐Saura, D. (2010) · Empiria Revista de metodología de ciencias sociales · doi:10.5944/empiria.20.2010.2042 · Cited by 5
Johansen, M. W. (2013) · Studies in applied philosophy, epistemology and rational ethics · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-37428-9_6 · Cited by 5
THEORETICAL AND REVIEW ARTICLES Six views of embodied cognition
Wilson, M. (2002) · Cited by 5
Verbal Patterns: Taming Cognitive Biology
Cowley, S. J. (2015) · Biosemiotics/Biosemiotics. Bookseries · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20663-9_7 · Cited by 5
Gaydos, M. J., & Squire, K. D. (2010) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-61520-719-0.ch012 · Cited by 5
Shared representations of actions for alternative suggestion with incomplete information
Lim, G. H. (2019) · Robotics and Autonomous Systems · doi:10.1016/j.robot.2019.02.005 · Cited by 5
Baber, C. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198795872.013.11 · Cited by 5
Cities and Entropy: Assessing Urban Sustainability as a Problem of Coordination
Netto, V. M., Meirelles, J., & Ribeiro, F. L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108574334.020 · Cited by 5
Training ecologies for the actor-creator and Gordon Craig’s School for the Art of the Theatre
Murphy, M. (2020) · Journal of Theatre Dance and Performance Training · doi:10.1080/19443927.2020.1789721 · Cited by 5
A space of goals: the cognitive geometry of informationally bounded agents
Archer, K., Volpi, N. C., Bröker, F., & Polani, D. (2022) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.211800 · Cited by 6
“an epistemic strategy: physical actions “that [make] mental computation easier, faster or more reliable” [25].”
BackgroundThree Simple Rules for Good Cognitive Science
Hardman, D. I. (2022) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.13172 · Cited by 5
Dix, A. J., Gill, S., Ramduny-Ellis, D., & Hare, J. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198718581.001.0001 · Cited by 5
Studying children's tactile problem-solving in a digital environment
Kim, M. J., & Cho, M. E. (2013) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2013.11.001 · Cited by 6
Environmental Feedback Drives Multiple Behaviors from the Same Neural Circuit
Williams, P. L., & Beer, R. D. (2013) · European Conference on Artificial Life · doi:10.1162/978-0-262-31709-2-ch041 · Cited by 11
Spatial task solving on tablets: analysing mental and physical rotation processes of 12–13-year olds
Wetzel, S., Bertel, S., Montag, M. J., & Zander, S. (2019) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-019-09699-8 · Cited by 5
Cognitive Analysis of a Highly Configurable Web 2.0 EHR Interface.
Senathirajah, Y., Kaufman, D. R., & Bakken, S. R. (2010) · PubMed · Cited by 5
Chahine, I., & Naresh, N. (2013) · Revista Latinoamericana de Etnomatemática Perspectivas Socioculturales de la Educación Matemática · Cited by 5
Bullot, N. J., & Jacques Droulez, A. (2008) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515080701840861 · Cited by 5
“As epistemic trackers in everyday deictic and epistemic actions (Ballard et al., 1997; Kirsh & Maglio, 1995), human agents frequently have to keep cognitive contact with several individuals around them, although they may not be able to see or perceive them—for instance when they have to remember…”
BackgroundTabletop Collaboration through Tangible Interactions
Subramanian, S., Pinelle, D., Korst, J., et al. (2007) · Workshops on Enabling Technologies: Infrastracture for Collaborative Enterprises · doi:10.1109/wetice.2007.173 · Cited by 5
“The physical action of moving the piece served as both a pragmatic action as well as an epistemic action [5].”
BackgroundObservation-based design methods for gestural user interfaces
Akers, D. (2007) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/1240866.1240868 · Cited by 5
“Others serve an epistemic [6] purpose: the user attempts to understand what is in the scene.”
BackgroundCasacuberta, D., Ayala, S., & Vallverdú, J. (2011) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60960-818-7.ch707 · Cited by 5
Twists and Oliver Twists in Mental Rotation: Complementary Actions as Orphan Processes
Athreya, D. N., Chandrasekharan, S., & Srinivasan, N. (2006) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 5
Embodied strategies in mathematical cognition
Johansen, M. W. (2010) · Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) · Cited by 5
Interactive Mathematical Visualisations: Frameworks, Tools and Studies
Sedig, K. (2008) · Advanced information and knowledge processing · doi:10.1007/978-1-84800-269-2_16 · Cited by 5
The actuated Workbench : 2D actuation in tabletop tangible interfaces
Pangaro, G. (2003) · DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) · Cited by 5
Efficacy of Formative Classroom Assessments in Theory and Practice
Clark, I. (2014) · ResearchWorks at the University of Washington (University of Washington) · Cited by 5
March, P. L., & Glăveanu, V. P. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.23718-8 · Cited by 7
Designing for tangible interaction
Fjeld, M. (2001) · Repository for Publications and Research Data (ETH Zurich) · doi:10.3929/ethz-a-004237155 · Cited by 5
“Exploratory epistemic actions (Kirsh and Maglio, 1994) are performed to unveil hidden information or to gain insight that would otherwise require a great deal of mental computation.”
BackgroundGroup actions at the fingertip: A 4E approach to mathematical cognition in Vanuatu sand drawing
Silva, A. D. (2026) · The Journal of Mathematical Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jmathb.2025.101313 · Cited by 4
Maps in the Head and Maps in the Hand
Skagerlund, K., Kirsh, D., & Dahlbäck, N. (2012) · PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) · Cited by 4
Self-citationSupporting the Externalisation of Thinking in Criminal Intelligence Analysis
Passmore, P., Attfield, S., Kodagoda, N., Groenewald, C., & Wong, B. L. W. (2015) · European Intelligence and Security Informatics Conference · doi:10.1109/eisic.2015.35 · Cited by 5
“Inference making also was observed to converge or diverge the analysis creating new understanding.”
BackgroundPeripheral Tangible Interaction
Edge, D., & Blackwell, A. F. (2016) · Human-computer interaction series · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29523-7_4 · Cited by 4
Joint Simon effect in movement trajectories
Sangati, E., Slors, M., Müller, B. C. N., et al. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0261735 · Cited by 4
“A tentative explanation for this that we would like to propose is something like ‘offloading’ of cognitive processes onto the resources of the body and the environment [44].”
BackgroundSocial phenomena as a challenge to the scaling-up problem
Petracca, E. (2023) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-023-09944-9 · Cited by 4
Sermarini, J., Michlowitz, R. A., LaViola, J. J., Walters, L. C., Azevedo, R., & Kider, J. T. (2024) · IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR) · doi:10.1109/vr58804.2024.00046 · Cited by 4
“These same interactions allow humans to utilize the environment to extend the problem-solving capabilities of their overall cognitive system through physical motions [50,63], environmental offloading [36], and distributing task-load [31].”
BackgroundHornbæk, K., Kristensson, P. O., & Oulasvirta, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192864543.003.0017 · Cited by 4
Label-checking strategies to adapt behaviour to design
Smith-Spark, J. H., Katz, H. B., Marchant, A. P., & Wilcockson, T. D. W. (2015) · European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics · doi:10.1145/2788412.2788425 · Cited by 4
“The cognitive process of maintaining in working memory the information taken from the specification sheet would, thus, be replaced by an auditory perceptual process, akin to the epistemic actions identified in Tetris players who changed mental rotations into visual rotations [11], thereby reducing cognitive load [12].”
BackgroundOutlining epistemic interaction
Turner, P. (2012) · European Conference on Cognitive Ergonomics · doi:10.1145/2448136.2448153 · Cited by 4
“Kirsh and Maglio (1994) have presented an analysis of how people play Tetris.”
BackgroundClassifying physical strategies in tangible tasks
Esteves, A., Bakker, S., Antle, A. N., May, A., Warren, J. L., & Oakley, I. (2014) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/2559206.2581185 · Cited by 4
Norman, S. J. (2013) · Contemporary Music Review · doi:10.1080/07494467.2013.775805 · Cited by 3
“These actions are seen as ‘procedures that direct the agent to exploit the environment to make the most of his or her limited cognitive resources’ ( Kirsh & Maglio, 1994, p. 518).”
BackgroundInfluentialCreativity-Centered Design from an Ecologically Grounded Perspective
Keller, D., Capasso, A., & Tinajero, P. (2015) · Journal of Cases on Information Technology · doi:10.4018/jcit.2015100101 · Cited by 4
Modelling human problem solving with data from an online game
Rach, T., & Kirsch, A. (2016) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-016-0767-4 · Cited by 4
“We chose to use an online game because researchers have successfully used games in the past to acquire data of human behavior in different tasks [20,2,8] with compelling results.”
MethodAuletta, G. (2011) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199608485.003.0023 · Cited by 4
Widening the Wideware: An Analysis of Multimodal Interaction in Scientific Practice
Alač, M. (2005) · Cited by 4
Dynamic Manipulation of Player Performance with Music Tempo in Tetris
Hufschmitt, A., Cardon, S., & Jacopin, É. (2021) · ACM International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (IUI) · doi:10.1145/3397481.3450684 · Cited by 4
“We can therefore benefit from the studies that have established the standard behavior of players of different skill levels [13, 15].”
ResultTangible agile mapping: ad-hoc tangible user interaction definition
Walsh, J. A., Itzstein, S. V., & Thomas, B. H. (2013) · Cited by 4
Human Cognition as a Foundation for the Emerging Egocentric Interaction Paradigm
Surie, D., Pederson, T., & Janlert, L.-E. (2012) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-25691-2_15 · Cited by 4
McGuirk, T. (2014) · ChesterRep (University of Chester) · Cited by 4
Scaffolded joint action as a micro-foundation of organizational learning
Gordon, B. R., & Theiner, G. (2015) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315815398-9 · Cited by 4
Pimenta, C. M. S., & Saraiva, M. J. (2019) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · doi:10.48489/quadrante.22976 · Cited by 4
Patterns of Connectivity: The Enactment of Organisational Routines in Greenfield Projects
Bygdås, A. L. (2016) · Knowledge and Process Management · doi:10.1002/kpm.1531 · Cited by 4
Mazzola, G. B., & Moreno Andreatta, D. (2009) · Springer eBooks · Cited by 4
Investigating Temporal-Spatial Characteristics of Mouse and Touch Input
Müller-Tomfelde, C. (2009) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-03655-2_72 · Cited by 4
“This class of action is preformed to “uncover information that is hidden or hard to compute mentally” and therefore “change[s] the world in order to simplify the problem-solving task” [19].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialConversation as a Site of Category Learning and Category Use
Barr, D. J., & Kronmüller, E. (2006) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(06)47006-7 · Cited by 4
Designing and Implementing MABS in AKIRA
Pezzulo, G., & Calvi, G. (2005) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-32243-6_5 · Cited by 4
“For example, the Watchdog will be enhanced with the capability of performing epistemic actions [22], e.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirsh, D., & Maglio, P.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kirsh, David
- Venue
- Cognitive Science
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1994-10
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 513-549
- ISSN
- 0364-0213 (ISSN-L)
- 1551-6709
- OpenAlex
- W2128922568
- Cited by
- 1,641
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 63 · 2025: 123 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 64 · 2022: 112 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 104 · 2019: 89 · 2018: 60 · 2017: 60 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 83 · 2014: 71 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 57
- FWCI
- 4.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cognitive Science (publishedVersion)
- PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Embodied and Extended Cognition
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › AI-based Problem Solving and Planning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Action Observation and Synchronization
- Keywords
- epistemic actions, Tetris, video gaming, cognition and action, information processing model, problem solving, philosophy of action
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