The DOI matches its Crossref record; 47 of the 47 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 11 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
On Distinguishing Epistemic from Pragmatic Action
Open accessAbstract
We present data and argument to show that in Tetris—a real‐time, interactive video game—certain cognitive and perceptual problems are more quickly, easily, and reliably solved by performing actions in the world than by performing computational actions in the head alone. We have found that some of the translations and rotations made by players of this video game are best understood as actions that use the world to improve cognition. These actions are not used to implement a plan, or to implement a reaction; they are used to change the world in order to simplify the problem‐solving task. Thus, we distinguish pragmatic actions—actions performed to bring one physically closer to a goal—from epistemic actions—actions performed to uncover informatioan that is hidden or hard to compute mentally. To illustrate the need for epistemic actions, we first develop a standard information‐processing model of Tetris cognition and show that it cannot explain performance data from human players of the game—even when we relax the assumption of fully sequential processing. Standard models disregard many actions taken by players because they appear unmotivated or superfluous. However, we show that such actions are actually far from superfluous; they play a valuable role in improving human performance. We argue that traditional accounts are limited because they regard action as having a single function: to change the world. By recognizing a second function of action—an epistemic function—we can explain many of the actions that a traditional model cannot. Although our argument is supported by numerous examples specifically from Tetris, we outline how the new category of epistemic action can be incorporated into theories of action more generally.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The paper argues that Tetris players perform some rotations and translations not to advance a physical goal but to simplify cognition, introducing epistemic actions as distinct from pragmatic actions. A classical sequential information-processing model and an interleaving variant fail to explain extra rotations and translate-to-wall routines, which are better explained as actions that uncover information, reduce mental rotation, or verify placement.
Key findings
- Players rotate zoids more than expected for purely pragmatic placement: each zoid is rotated more than half its possible rotations; for a shape with four distinct orientations, the expected average would be 1.5 rotations, but observed rotations exceed this. Rotations sometimes begin before 100 ms, before the zoid is fully visible.
- Early rotation can expose hidden parts 150 to 300 ms earlier than waiting for natural appearance; partially hidden zoids ambiguous in both shape and position are more likely to be rotated than those ambiguous in shape alone, though no player reported noticing that zoids begin falling in different columns.
- Physical rotation of a zoid 90° can take as few as 100 ms, whereas mental rotation of a zoid 90° is estimated at 800 to 1200 ms. The translate-to-wall verification routine occurs in about 1% of drops; experts drop a zoid on average 15.65 squares from resting position ordinarily versus 20.05 squares after the translate routine, with intermediate players 13.18 versus 19.04 and advanced players 13.69 versus 19.33.
- The translate-to-wall routine moves the zoid away from the intended column, so it cannot be a pragmatically good move; its function is to verify the column and reduce error, and higher drops are more likely to be verified this way.
Methods
- Design: Tetris was used as a real-time, interactive video game domain; the authors implemented a computational laboratory to unobtrusively record the timing of all keystrokes and game situations, collected tachistoscopic mental rotation tests, and designed and implemented the RoboTetris expert system to compare human and machine performance.
- Sample: the mental rotation pilot had three Tetris players—one intermediate, one advanced, and one expert—each seeing eight presentations of each possible pair of L-shaped or S-shaped zoids; human gameplay data came from subjects playing Tetris.
- Analysis: a classical four-phase information-processing model was constructed (bitmap representation, chunked symbolic representation, placement computation, motor plan computation), then relaxed to allow cascade/interleaving; model predictions such as expected rotation counts were compared with observed keystroke timing and frequency, and deviations were interpreted as epistemic actions.
Limitations
- The paper states it is often hard to prove that an agent performs a particular action for epistemic rather than pragmatic reasons, because an action can serve both epistemic and pragmatic purposes simultaneously, making the relative influence difficult to quantify.
- The paper states it is an open question whether agents use multiple-perspective representations of zoids; the mental rotation data are described as pilot data from only three players, so the mental rotation time estimates are preliminary.
- Evident from the text: many epistemic interpretations are inferred from timing and behavioral regularities rather than direct experimental manipulation, and the mental rotation comparison rests on a very small sample.
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Claims the paper makes
74 Own interpretation · 18 No basis given · 15 Own result · 4 Sources not found · 2 No full text of the sources · 1 Own method
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In the paper
“By rotating an emerging zoid, players can expose its hidden parts, thereby uncovering its complete visual image 150 to 300 ms earlier than if they waited for it to appear naturally.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“We have observed that occasionally a zoid will be rotated very early (before 100 ms), well before we would expect an agent to have any good idea of where to place the zoid.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“As shown in Table 1, experts drop a zoid, on average, when it is about 13 squares from its rest- ing position.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The shortest time between keystrokes in our data is about 75 ms”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“as shown in Figure 15, the greater the drop distance, the more likely the drop will be verified using the translate-to-wall routine.”
- Also stated in: § 546 KIRSH AND MAGLIO · plain
“we found that the higher the drop, the more often the translate-to-wall routine is used.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § 546 KIRSH AND MAGLIO · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rotations and translations occur in abundance, almost from the moment a zoid enters the Tetris screen.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the average time between keystrokes is around 250 ms”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Our observations, however, indicate that agents learn qualitatively different behavioral tricks.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Our data show that a player is more likely to rotate a partially hidden zoid that is ambiguous in both shape and position than one ambiguous in shape alone.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“But we have found at least one unambiguously epistemic use of transiation: to verify judgment of the column of a zoid.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 17
- It may state two separate claims as one. 8
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In the paper
“In fewer than 10 hours, a newcomer can play at an intermediate level.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Agents learn how to expose information early, how to prime themselves to recognize zoids faster, and how to perform external checks or verifications to reduce the uncertainty of judgments.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This is particularly clear given that at 100 ms, the zoid is not yet completely in view, and sometimes the agent cannot even reliably guess the zoid's shape.”
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“Some players do report having hot spots in mind before an episode begins.”
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“P emerges in column 4, and R emerges in column 5”
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“First, it is a fast, repetitive game requiring split-second decisions of a perceptual and cognitive sort.”
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“In such studies, actions are defined as transformations in physical or social space.”
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In the paper
“There are only four possible actions a player can take: translate a zoid right, translate left, rotate, and drop.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Because time is at a premium in this game, a standard perfor- mance model would predict that players develop strategies that minimize the number of moves, creating sequences of pragmatic actions which head directly toward goal states.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The effects of rotating a zoid are wholly determinate.”
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“The only certain way to get information about new candidates into the iconic buffer is through perception.”
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In the paper
“In Phase Three, players determine where to put the zoid.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“there are a host of separate brain regions involved in encoding the bitmap features in the iconic buffer. Some of these have close connections to motor cortex (Felleman & Van Essen, 1991; Sereno & Allman, 1991).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Felleman & Van Essen, 1991 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sereno & Allman, 1991
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In the paper
“In Phase Three-the decision phase-rotation also serves a variety of epistemic functions.”
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In the paper
“By definition, it requires moving the zoid away from the currently intended column, and hence it cannot be a pragmatically good move.”
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In the paper
“Of course, such epistemic procedures may be cached, but they are not pragmatic procedures; they are procedures that direct the agent to exploit the environment to make the most of his or her limited cognitive resources.”
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None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“standard accounts of skill acquisition explain enhanced performance as the result of chunking, cach- ing, or compiling (Anderson, 1983; Newell, 1990; Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981; Reason, 1990).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Anderson, 1983
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Newell, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Newell & Rosenbloom, 1981; Reason, 1990
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- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is clearly in the interest of a player to identify the complete shape as soon as possible.”
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In the paper
“The processing model this suggests to us is a significant departure from classical theories of action. Its chief novelty lies in allowing individual func- tional units inside the agent to be in closed-loop interaction with the outside world.”
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In the paper
“the greater the drop height, the more in- formative the verification and the less risky (costly) the action.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is not outrageous to suppose that there is motor involvement in selective attention since there already exists a close connection between attention and the oculo- motor system responsible for saccades.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This kind of model follows the distributed framework proposed by Minsky (1986).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Minsky (1986)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The authors state this as an assumption.
Tetris cognition proceeds in four major phases.
“It is based on a classical information-processing model of expertise based on the sup- position that Tetris cognition proceeds in four major phases:”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The model is fully sequential: Phase Two is completed before Phase Three begins, and Three is completed before Four begins.
“As we have stated it, the model is fully sequential: Phase Two is completed before Phase Three begins, and Three is completed before Four begins.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Each zoid emerges in a random orientation, and on average any zoid can be expected to be placed in any of its orientations with equal probability.
“This follows because each zoid emerges in a random orientation, and on average, any zoid can be expected to be placed in any of its orientations with equal probability.”
The paper relies on this without support.
When a zoid first enters at the top of the screen, only a fraction of its total form is visible.
“When a zoid first enters at the top of the screen, only a fraction of its total form is visible.”
The paper relies on this without support.
At medium speed, a zoid descends at a rate of one square every 150 ms.
“At medium speed, a zoid descends at a rate of one square every 150 ms.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The close coupling between attention and saccades is already accepted.
“The close coupling between attention and saccades is already accepted”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Matching is a primitive process in working memory: Zoid chunk and contour chunk can be compared and matched only if they are explicitly represented in working memory.
“So far we have assumed that matching is a primitive process in working memory: Zoid chunk and contour chunk can be compared and matched only if they are explicitly represented in working memory.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The local effects of an action in Tetris are totally determinate, with no hidden states, exogenous influences, or other agents to change the result of hitting the rotate key.
“The property of Tetris which makes such a strategy pay off is that the local effects of an action are totally determinate. There are no hidden states, exogenous influences, or other agents to change the result of hitting the rotate key.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Exploratory epistemic actions (Kirsh and Maglio, 1994) are performed to unveil hidden information or to gain insight that would otherwise require a great deal of mental computation.”
From Physical and Virtual Tools: Activity Theory Applied to the Design of Groupware (2002) · cites this paper as Kirsh and Maglio, 1994
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Empirically, such externalisations have been shown to improve problem-solving accuracy as well as speed (Kirsh & Maglio, 1994).”
From Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory (2021) · cites this paper as Kirsh & Maglio, 1994
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Hence, cognitive offloading with technical tools might enable performance beyond internal cognitive limitations and thus increase immediate performance (Kirsh & Maglio, 1994; Salomon & Perkins, 2005).”
From Consequences of cognitive offloading: Boosting performance but diminishing memory (2021) · cites this paper as Kirsh & Maglio, 1994
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Kirsh and Maglio (1994) argue that it is cognitively more economical to rotate the figure on screen by pushing a controller button than to mentally simulate the correct rotation.”
From The Cognitive Architecture of Digital Externalization (2023) · cites this paper as Kirsh and Maglio (1994)
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ 538 KIRSH AND MAGLIO
“As shown in Table 1, experts drop a zoid, on average, when it is about 13 squares from its rest- ing position. On those occasions when they also perform the translate-to- wall routine, the zoid is dropped, on average, from about 19 squares above its resting position”
§ 538 KIRSH AND MAGLIO
“Intermediate Advanced Expert M Drop Distance 13.18 13.69 15.65 M Drop Distance after Translate Routine 19.04 19.33 20.05”
Citations
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Huang, J., Cherubini, M., Nova, N., et al. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-77234-9_1 · Cited by 4
La dimension sociocognitive de la jouabilité
Philippette, T. (2017) · Interfaces numériques · doi:10.25965/interfaces-numeriques.781 · Cited by 4
Re-assessing ecology of tool transparency in epistemic practices
Pino, B. (2010) · Mind & Society · doi:10.1007/s11299-010-0071-4 · Cited by 4
“Kirsh and Maglio (1994) , in a well-known research on certain cognitive and perceptual problems involved in the real-time interactive video game Tetris, provide an empirically-based distinction between pragmatic and epistemic actions.”
BackgroundXPlaces: An Open Framework to Support the Digital Living at Home
Deriu, M., Paddeu, G., & Soro, A. (2010) · doi:10.1109/greencom-cpscom.2010.40 · Cited by 4
Situating person memory: The role of the visual context on memory for behavioral information
Palma, T. A., Garrido, M. V., & Semin, G. R. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2013.12.006 · Cited by 4
Embodied Design Cognition: Action-Based Formalizations in Architectural Design
Smithwick, D., & Sass, L. (2014) · International Journal of Architectural Computing · doi:10.1260/1478-0771.12.4.399 · Cited by 4
“They witnessed expert Tetris players utilize “physical actions [to] make mental computation easier, faster, or more reliable” [44].”
BackgroundCognitive psychology does not reduce to neuroscience
Colling, L. J., & Roberts, R. P. (2010) · doi:10.5096/ascs20097 · Cited by 4
“Much of the empirical research into the extended mind has drawn a distinction between what Kirsh and Maglio (1994) call “epistemic actions” and “pragmatic actions”.”
BackgroundWenwen Dou, A., Ziemkiewicz, C., Harrison, L., Jeong, D. H., Ribarsky, W., Wang, X., & Chang, R. (2012) · Information Visualization · doi:10.1177/1473871611433712 · Cited by 4
Pennock, M. J., Rouse, W. B., Bodner, D., Gaffney, C., Hinkle, J. E., Klesges, C., & Oghbaie, M. (2016) · Cited by 4
Reconsidering healthcare evidence as dynamic and distributed
Sedig, K., Parsons, P., Naimi, A., & Willoughby, K. A. (2015) · International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare · doi:10.1097/xeb.0000000000000030 · Cited by 4
Building Character: The Art and Science of Casting
Cook, A. (2018) · Project Muse (Johns Hopkins University) · Cited by 4
Backward Reasoning and Epistemic Actions in Discovering Processes of Strategic Games Problems
Barbero, M., Chacón, I. M. G., & Arzarello, F. (2020) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math8060989 · Cited by 4
“The concept of epistemic action was introduced into cognitive sciences by Kirsh and Maglio [19] to indicate actions that facilitate cognition and allow for problems to be solved more quickly.”
BackgroundSynthetic Information Environments for Policy Informatics: A Distributed Cognition Perspective
Barrett, C. L., Eubank, S., Marathe, A., MARATHE, M. V., & Swarup, S. (2015) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315736211-27 · Cited by 6
Thinking by doing and doing by thinking : a taxonomy of actions
Neth, H., & Müller, T. (2008) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 4
The Extended Mind and Network-Enabled Cognition
Smart, P. R., Engelbrecht, P. C., Braines, D., Hendler, J., & Shadbolt, N. (2008) · ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) · Cited by 4
Cao, C. G. L. (1996) · Summit (Simon Fraser University) · Cited by 4
Ramos, V., Fernandes, C. M., & Rosa, A. C. (2005) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.cs/0512003 · Cited by 4
“One of the possibilities is uncovering hidden information , which was demonstrated by Kirsh and Maglio [35] using the perception-action loop.”
BackgroundStudying Simulations with Distributed Cognition
Rybing, J. (2018) · doi:10.3384/diss.diva-145307 · Cited by 4
Multi-Armed Bandits with Fairness Constraints for Distributing Resources to Human TeammatesPreprint
Claure, H., Chen, Y., Modi, J., et al. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1907.00313 · Cited by 4
Consequences of Cognitive Offloading: Boosting Performance But Diminishing MemoryPreprint
Grinschgl, S., Papenmeier, F., & Meyerhoff, H. S. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/s7wbg · Cited by 5
Distributed Atrophy: How AI Shapes and Shrinks Our Cognitive HabitsPreprint
Jadhav, A. (2025) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/hzuw7_v1 · Cited by 4
Haraldsen, M. (2025) · AI & SOCIETY · doi:10.1007/s00146-025-02253-6 · Cited by 3
Cabellos, B., de Aldama, C., & Pozo, J. I. (2026) · Revista de Educación a Distancia (RED) · doi:10.6018/red.671331 · Cited by 5
6G and Embodied AI: Benefits and Risks of Increasingly Extended Minds
Farina, M., & Lavazza, A. (2026) · Neuroethics · doi:10.1007/s12152-026-09632-w · Cited by 3
Pezzulo, G., & Calvi, G. (2004) · International Conference on Cognitive Modelling · Cited by 3
Supporting "what-if" in touch-screen web Applications
Simonyi, P., Wilson, J., Brown, J. M., et al. (2015) · doi:10.1145/2824823.2824826 · Cited by 3
“About the same time, Kirsh and Maglio identified a key underlying point [15].”
BackgroundReally situated self-control: self-control as a set of situated skills
Kalis, A., Pascoe, J., & Segundo‐Ortin, M. (2024) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-024-09989-4 · Cited by 3
A computational approach to selective attention in embodied approaches to cognitive archaeology
Constant, A., Paolo, L. D. D., GUÉNIN--CARLUT, A., Martı́nez, L. M., Criado-Boado, F., Müeller, J., & Clark, A. (2024) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2024.0508 · Cited by 3
Li, H., Di, H., Duan, B., Luo, M., Wang, Y., & Wang, Z. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1495489 · Cited by 3
“Early counting often relies on finger movements, which help young children track counted objects and reduce cognitive load (Kirsh and Maglio, 1994).”
Gender, Confidence, and the Mismeasure of Intelligence, Competitiveness, and Literacy
Harrison, G. W., Ross, D., & Swarthout, J. T. (2025) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/738345 · Cited by 4
Expectations driven approach for Situated, Goal-directed Agents.
Piunti, M., Castelfranchi, C., & Falcone, R. (2007) · Cited by 3
Schneider, E., & Boucheix, J. (2008) · L’Année psychologique · doi:10.4074/s0003503308003023 · Cited by 3
Attention, Information, and Epistemic Perception
Bullot, N. J. (2011) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/7944.003.0017 · Cited by 4
Causal Biomimesis: Self-replication as Evolutionary Consequence
Montes, G. A. (2017) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-63537-8_28 · Cited by 3
Rulers and Dividers: A Technology of Design
Luscombe, P. (2018) · Design Issues · doi:10.1162/desi_a_00482 · Cited by 3
The motor intentional core of situation awareness
Chiappe, D. L., & Vu, K. L. (2018) · Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science · doi:10.1080/1463922x.2018.1488299 · Cited by 3
“They were first studied by Kirsch and Maglio (1994) using the game TetrisTM, where falling geometric shapes have to be put into slots to make horizontal rows under time pressure.”
BackgroundMethodThird Eye: Exploring the Affordances of Third-Person View in Telepresence Robots
Tarun, A. P., Baig, N., Chang, J., et al. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-35888-4_66 · Cited by 3
Intuitive spatial interaction in landscape design
Jakaitis, J., & Žukas, J. (2020) · Landscape architecture and art · doi:10.22616/j.landarchart.2019.15.02 · Cited by 3
“Kirsh and Maglio [34] described motor activity as dual: epistemic or pragmatic.”
BackgroundExtended Cognition and The Innovation Process
Mastrogiorgio, A., Petracca, E., & Palumbo, R. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198837091.003.0008 · Cited by 3
Management control practices and pragmatism
Curtis, E. M., & Sweeney, B. (2023) · Accounting Auditing & Accountability Journal · doi:10.1108/aaaj-04-2022-5744 · Cited by 3
Ethics of Artificial Intelligence in Academia
Khan, Z. R. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-079-7_188-1 · Cited by 6
Sims, M. (2023) · Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1017/psa.2023.104 · Cited by 3
“A last example of another holistic program is embedded cognitive science (Kirsh and Maglio 1994; Hutchins 1995; Ballard, Hayhoe, and Pelz 1995; Clark 2008; Gaschler et al. 2013).”
BackgroundCabellos, B., & Pozo, J. I. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13090929 · Cited by 5
Iriskhanova, O. K., Kiose, M. I., Leonteva, A. V., et al. (2023) · Linguistic Frontiers · doi:10.2478/lf-2023-0014 · Cited by 3
Extended cognition and life after death
Spivey, M. J. (2023) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2023.101325 · Cited by 3
“These are all ways of jigging your environment so that when you interact with that jig, you are performing an ‘epistemic action’ — an action that carries cognitive content of its own [41].”
The Embodiment of Attention in the Perception-Action Loop
Spivey, M. J., & Huette, S. (2015) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315775845.ch29 · Cited by 3
Comparing tangible and multi-touch interfaces for a spatial problem solving task
Wang, S. (2010) · Summit (Simon Fraser University) · Cited by 3
BUILD-IT : intuitive plant layout mediated by natural interaction
Fjeld, M., Bichsel, M., & Matthias Rauterberg, A. (1999) · Cited by 3
Thoughts on the table: Gesture as a tool for thinking in blind and visually impaired children
Jelec, A., & Jaworska, D. (2014) · Yearbook of the Poznan Linguistic Meeting · doi:10.1515/yplm-2015-0004 · Cited by 3
Om riskkommunikation: kartor, klyftor och mål
Brinck, I. (2005) · Lund University Publications (Lund University) · Cited by 3
Application of Frameworks in the Analysis and (Re)design of Interactive Visual Learning Tools
Liang, H., & Sedig, K. (2009) · The Journal of Interactive Learning Research · Cited by 3
Watanabe, T., Matsushima, N., Nishi, H., et al. (2011) · Journal of Advanced Mechanical Design Systems and Manufacturing · doi:10.1299/jamdsm.5.35 · Cited by 3
Discovering and Communicating through Multimodal Abduction
Magnani, L. (2008) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-78733-4_2 · Cited by 3
“In this sense Kirsh and Maglio [ 16 ] distinguish actions into two categories,”
BackgroundDistributed (design) knowledge exchange
Heylighen, A., Heylighen, F., Bollen, J., et al. (2007) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-007-0122-5 · Cited by 3
Development of the perception of object containment in 9‐ to 16‐month‐olds
Dejonckheere, P., Smitsman, A. W., & Denève, L. (2006) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1348/026151005x64686 · Cited by 3
Real-Time Language Processing as Embodied and Embedded in Joint Action
Rigoli, L. M., & Spivey, M. J. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-81-322-2443-3_1 · Cited by 3
Embodied Social Thought: Linking Social Concepts, Emotion, and Gesture
Hostetter, A. B., Alibali, M. W., & Niedenthal, P. M. (2012) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781446247631.n11 · Cited by 3
“In each of these examples, some aspects of the cognitive work required for a task are off-loaded onto the environment (Kirsh & Maglio, 1994; Wilson, 2002).”
BackgroundSherpa: Leveraging User Attention for Computational Steering in Visual Analytics
Cui, Z., Kancherla, J., Bravo, H. C., et al. (2019) · doi:10.1109/vds48975.2019.8973384 · Cited by 3
“Put differently, some navigation behavior may not be a direct indication of interest, but rather merely a form of epistemic action [22] (cf.”
BackgroundThe Toolman effect: Preexisting non-tool-use experience improves subsequent tool-use performance
Osiurak, F., Griffon, P., Gaujoux, V., Reynaud, E., & Navarro, J. (2021) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103389 · Cited by 3
How We Cope with Digital Technology
Turner, P. (2013) · Synthesis lectures on human-centered informatics · doi:10.2200/s00519ed2v01y201307hci018 · Cited by 3
Sketch It, Make It: Freehand Drawing for Precise Rapid Fabrication
Johnson, G., Yi–Luen, E., Gross, M. D., et al. (2018) · KiltHub Repository · doi:10.1184/r1/6470435 · Cited by 3
The Design of UDOO Boards: Contributing to the Appropriation of Digital Technology
Rizzo, A., Caporali, M., Conti, D., Montefoschi, F., Burresi, G., & Sinopoli, B. (2019) · Frontiers in ICT · doi:10.3389/fict.2019.00004 · Cited by 3
“Pretense can be viewed as the unconventional use of an object in place of another in order to achieve a goal, as a dialog with objects that allow the production of pragmatic as well as epistemic actions (Kirsh and Maglio, 1994).”
BackgroundBest of Both Worlds: A Platform for Hybrids of Computer Games and Board Games
Rören, J. (2007) · Malmö University Publications (Malmö University) · Cited by 3
The Tetris model of the information seeking process
Wilson, M. L. (2009) · ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) · Cited by 3
Heuveln, B. V. (2000) · Cited by 3
Horiguchi, Y., & Sawaragi, T. (2002) · Transactions of the Society of Instrument and Control Engineers · doi:10.9746/sicetr1965.38.1097 · Cited by 3
Skill Analysis of Search Behavior via Remote-Controlled Robot from Ecological Perspective
Horiguchi, Y., Sawaragi, T., & Kuwatani, M. (2005) · Journal of Japan Society for Fuzzy Theory and Intelligent Informatics · doi:10.3156/jsoft.17.441 · Cited by 3
Representation hunger: Reformulating the “problem‐domain” of truly complex cognition
Grayot, J. D. (2025) · Mind & Language · doi:10.1111/mila.12553 · Cited by 2
“…contrary opinions in the E-cognitive landscape: for moderates, internal and external representations dovetail to create a “ closed loop ” (Clark, 2008; cf. Kirsh & Maglio, 1994), whereas for radicals, there is little to no theoretical space for internal representations to play an explanatory role.”
Atmospheres and extended feelings
Velasco, P. F. (2025) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-025-10097-0 · Cited by 3
Haraped, L., Gerlofs, D. J., Huang, O. C., Hickling, C., Bischof, W. F., Sachse, P., & Kingstone, A. F. (2025) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.70123 · Cited by 2
“…this as an example of “epistemic action,” a physical action in the external world that facilitates internal cognitive processes on the dyad level (Kirsh & Maglio, 1994), which further exemplifies how social cognitive systems are also extended cognitive systems (A. Clark & Chalmers, 1998; M. J.…”
Dokic, J. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780191976650.001.0001 · Cited by 4
Toward a cognitive developmental theory of embodied learning in STEM domains
Zhang, I., Son, J. Y., & Stigler, J. W. (2025) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2025.2576939 · Cited by 4
“Kirsh and Maglio (1994) argued that offloading through physical interaction with the environment is a natural human strategy to conserve cognitive resources.”
InteractiveKG: Transparent and user-controllable knowledge graph reasoning
Kim, M., Zhao, Y., Ju, J., Seo, J., & Park, H. (2026) · Information Visualization · doi:10.1177/14738716261435574 · Cited by 2
“18,19 However, existing LLM reasoning systems rarely combine structured knowledge representations with persistent, user-editable reasoning artifacts that can be curated over time.”
Optimism for the future of unified theories
Anderson, J. R., & Lebiere, C. J. (2003) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x03460135 · Cited by 2
Bridging the gap between writing and cognition
Trybulec, M. (2013) · Pragmatics & Cognition · doi:10.1075/pc.21.3.03try · Cited by 2
Embodied Functionalism and Inner Complexity: Simon’s Twenty-first Century Mind
Rupert, R. D. (2016) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137442505_2 · Cited by 2
Ienca, M. (2018) · Repository for Publications and Research Data (ETH Zurich) · doi:10.3929/ethz-b-000268058 · Cited by 2
Twist-hands and shuttle-kissing
Penny, S., & Fisher, T. A. (2021) · FormAkademisk - forskningstidsskrift for design og designdidaktikk · doi:10.7577/formakademisk.4209 · Cited by 2
“It gives the twisthand information; It is an epistemic action, on which subsequent pragmatic actions depend - bobbins that look too thick are sent back into the filling/pressing/threading process (cf Kirsh and Maglio 1994). There is a direct connection here to the work of David Kirsh between conceiving of skilled acti…”
BackgroundEye–hand coordination: memory-guided grasping during obstacle avoidance
Abbas, H. H., Langridge, R. W., & Marotta, J. J. (2021) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-021-06271-w · Cited by 2
“2003; Kirsh and Maglio 1994).”
Репликация эффектов интерактивного решения задач спичечной алгебры
Spiridonov, V. F., Ерофеева, М., Klowait, N. O., Ардисламов, В., Морозов, М., & Здилар, С. (2021) · Психологические исследования · doi:10.54359/ps.v14i79.119 · Cited by 4
Learning Mathematics with Digital Resources: Reclaiming the Cognitive Role of Physical Movement
Abrahamson, D., Ryokai, K., & Dimmel, J. K. (2023) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-95060-6_22-1 · Cited by 3
Shang, J., Zhou, J., & Wang, S. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-4442-8_3 · Cited by 2
Are Interactive Exhibits at a Science Center Cognitive Artifacts?
Trybulec, M., & Iłowiecka‐Tańska, I. (2024) · Foundations of Science · doi:10.1007/s10699-024-09959-8 · Cited by 2
Techno-Wantons: Adaptive Technology and the Will of Tomorrow
White, B. (2024) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-024-10095-y · Cited by 2
“…to characterise our relationship with technology and material space is enormous, casting its net over such material resources as computer interfaces (Kirsh and Maglio 1994; Kirsh 2019), laptops and smartphones (Chalmers, 2019; Carter and Palermos 2016; Bruineberg and Fabry 2022), navigation…”
Incentivizing interdependent tasks: Evidence from a real-effort experiment
Goette, L. F., & Senn, J. (2024) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2024.106718 · Cited by 2
Rethinking chaîne opératoire beyond cognitivist approaches
Slaughter, K. A. (2024) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-024-10041-8 · Cited by 2
“…defines instances where cognitive output is a physical action meant to discover new information that contributes to the successful completion of a problem (rotating puzzle pieces and testing the fit in order to find the correct match is a very basic example of this concept) (Kirsh & Maglio, 1994).”
Effect of spatial training on space-number mapping: a situated cognition account
Julie, L., & Badets, A. (2025) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-025-02078-4 · Cited by 1
“…by strategically utilizing the environment—leaving information available in the world to be accessed as needed rather than fully encoding it—and employing epistemic actions (Kirsh & Maglio, 1994) to modify the environment, thereby minimizing the remaining cognitive effort required (Wilson, 2002).”
Li, H., Duan, B., Luo, M., Chen, M., & Xu, E. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-04693-y · Cited by 4
“Additionally, motor-assisted counting, such as using fingers, aids in maintaining attention and reducing cognitive load 107 .”
Evolutionary Trajectories of Consciousness: From Biological Foundations to Technological Horizons
Gusev, E., Sarapultsev, A., & Komelkova, M. V. (2025) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci15070734 · Cited by 6
Mengers, V., & Brock, O. (2025) · Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/icra55743.2025.11127552 · Cited by 2
“Each system was tested n = 5 times per setting. take epistemic actions [35], gathering information, unless forced into planning by task constraints [36].”
Two ways of grounding the discussion on extended cognition
Dahlbäck, N., Stjernberg, F., Kristiansson, M., et al. (2011) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 2
Cuerpo y movimiento en el pensamiento musical.
Shifres, F., & Ghiena, A. P. (2011) · Orientación y Sociedad · Cited by 2
Hardy, J. (2012) · interactions · doi:10.1145/2377783.2377795 · Cited by 2
Starbird, K., & Palen, L. (2011) · iConference · doi:10.1145/1940761.1940844 · Cited by 2
“The time spent dealing with these complexities was considerable, but does this consumption constitute a cognitive tax and negatively impact our overall goal of enabling novices to program? Or does it in fact fit within that goal? Though there is more work to do in answering these questions, based on this research we f…”
BackgroundInfluentialHierarchical visual filtering, pragmatic and epistemic actions for database visualization
Junior, J. F. R., Cirilo, C. E., do Prado, A. F., et al. (2013) · ACM Symposium on Applied Computing · doi:10.1145/2480362.2480545 · Cited by 2
The self between vehicle externalism and the Myth of the Cartesian Theatre
Vicari, G. (2011) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 2
Modulation : an alternative to instructions and forces
Fultot, M. F. (2015) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-015-0976-x · Cited by 2
“It is possible that Clark is confusing the nature of dynamical systems with the role they play in so called “epistemic actions” (Clark 2008, pp. 221–222; Kirsh and Maglio 1994).”
BackgroundGibbs, R. W. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511805844.001 · Cited by 2
Tool use and the human mind: From basic to materially mediated operative intentionality
Woelert, P. (2014) · Cognitive Semiotics · doi:10.1515/cogsem-2014-0014 · Cited by 2
“Of particular point in this regard – following enduringly instructive account of human evolution and its biological and technological dimensions presented by French archaeologist André Leroi-Gourhan (1993) – is that the human agent, as a consequence of the evolutionary acquisition of bipedal locomotion, is gifted with…”
BackgroundTetris as Research Paradigm: An Approach to Studying Complex Cognitive Skills
Gray, W. D., Perez, R. S., Lindstedt, J. K., Skinner, A. D., Johnson, R., Mayer, R. E., Adams, D. M., & Atkinson, R. K. (2014) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirsh, D., & Maglio, P.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kirsh, David
- Venue
- Cognitive Science
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1994-10
- Volume
- 18
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 513-549
- ISSN
- 0364-0213 (ISSN-L)
- 1551-6709
- OpenAlex
- W2128922568
- Cited by
- 1,641
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 63 · 2025: 123 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 64 · 2022: 112 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 104 · 2019: 89 · 2018: 60 · 2017: 60 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 83 · 2014: 71 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 57
- FWCI
- 4.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Cognitive Science (publishedVersion)
- PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Embodied and Extended Cognition
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › AI-based Problem Solving and Planning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Action Observation and Synchronization
- Keywords
- epistemic actions, Tetris, video gaming, cognition and action, information processing model, problem solving, philosophy of action
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