Physical and Virtual Tools: Activity Theory Applied to the Design of Groupware

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Exploratory epistemic actions are performed to unveil hidden information or gain insight that would otherwise require much mental computation.

“Exploratory epistemic actions (Kirsh and Maglio, 1994) are performed to unveil hidden information or to gain insight that would otherwise require a great deal of mental computation.”

• cites Kirsh and Maglio, 1994 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Bimanual interaction has been extensively studied by Guiard (1987) and Fitzmaurice and Buxton (1997), and guidelines can be drawn from their results.

“Bimanual interaction has been studied extensively by Guiard (1987) and Fitzmaurice and Buxton (1997) and guidelines may be drawn from their results.”

• cites Guiard (1987) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Fitzmaurice and Buxton (1997) sourcePartly supported

  The Experiment section describes a task designed for two-handed use, and the Discussion reports how participants used one or two hands with different devices. But the study primarily compares input-device configurations; it does not extensively investigate bimanual interaction or establish bimanual guidelines. The Related Work section instead says its design goals were guided by earlier research on two-handed interaction. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Using VRML, BUILD-IT receives individual models from a CAD system.

“Employing Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML), individual models are transferred from a CAD system to BUILD-IT (Fjeld et al., 1998b).”

• cites Fjeld et al., 1998b sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

The authors' own design process and the planning task they design for are not exclusively goal-directed; they also have exploratory elements.

“In our work, however, we have realized that both our own design process and the planning task for which we are designing the groupware are not exclusively goal-directed; they also have exploratory elements.”

May combine two claims.

BUILD-IT has no undo possibility, so users must keep information about previous steps in their planning process.

“However, there is no possibility of undoing, so users must keep information about previous steps in their planning process.”

May combine two claims.

BUILD-IT works for one person, but it is most effective when mediating a work group.

“The BUILD-IT system can be used by a single individual, but its full potential is realized as a mediator among members of a work group (Figure 7).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Visual feedback in BUILD-IT depends heavily on computer graphics performance and currently causes a delay in updating the image.

“Visual feedback relies heavily on computer graphics performance and at present results in a delay in updating the image.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A particular locking mechanism is based on a particular alignment procedure.

“A particular kind of locking mechanism is based on one particular kind of alignment procedure.”

May combine two claims.

The Slider tool arranges both handling and height cues along the height axis, making action and perception fully coincident.

“With Slider, handling and height cues are both organized along the height axis; thus action and perception are fully coincident (Section 3.2).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Relative to physical model-based layout systems, BUILD-IT represents models in a virtual environment more cheaply, quickly, and exactly.

“Compared with physical, model-based layout systems, BUILD-IT offers cheaper, quicker, and more exact model representation in a virtual environment.”

May combine two claims.

The design of BUILD-IT faced three challenges: a potential perceptual problem of users acting in two realities, a technological problem of changing model height, and a mixture of perceptual and technological challenge of using 2D interaction to access a 3D virtual setting.

“The challenges we faced were of three kinds.First, there is a potential perceptual problem for the users.The users employ physical bricks to design and manipulate a virtual setting which is simultaneously projected onto the table on which the bricks are sitting.Thus, the users are living and acting in two realities at once (Section 4.2.1).Designing bricks to link these realities fluently is”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The binding between physical bricks and virtual models was kept uniform.

“The binding between bricks and virtual models was kept uniform.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Selecting a virtual model with a physical brick establishes a planar relation in position and rotation between the physical and virtual worlds.

“At the moment of selecting a virtual model with a physical brick a planar relation -in terms of position and rotation -is established between the physical and the virtual worlds.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The authors' design team itself experienced a collective learning process during system development work.

“This was actually experienced by our design team itself during system development work.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

After a planning session, positioned models can be returned from BUILD-IT to the CAD system.

“After a planning session, the positioned models can be returned to the CAD system.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Basic usage of BUILD-IT is acquired within minutes.

“Basic usage of the system is acquired within minutes.”

May combine two claims.

The second step used physical tools that enhanced performance, yet they were overly tedious to use.

“Physical tools improved performance but their use was too tedious (Fjeld et al., 1999).”

• cites Fjeld et al., 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Several tools in the paper drew on metaphors, including tower, sliding-rule, floor, and frame.

“Some of the tools described in this paper were related to, or based on, metaphors, such as tower, sliding-rule, floor, and frame.”

May combine two claims.

The block brick is easy to grasp and simple to detect, but its height breaks the continuity of the projected image, so it does not always mediate fluently between users and the virtual world.

“The first feasible brick was the block (Figure 8, right, in center).The advantages of this shape are that users grasp the brick easily and that image detection is simple.However, due to the height of the brick, the continuity of the projected image is broken.Therefore the brick is not always suited to mediate fluently between users and the virtual world.”

May combine two claims.

In the third step, a second-generation virtual tool (Floor) allowed the virtual floor to be handled with a virtual tool, and the physical tools were no longer needed.

“In a third step, a second-generation of virtual tools was developed, recombining elements of the first and the second step.Hence, the virtual floor could be handled with a virtual tool; the physical tools were no longer needed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Bimanual interaction underpins exploratory epistemic latitude by enabling zoom.

“We notice that bimanual interaction underpins exploratory epistemic latitude, by enabling zoom.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In BUILD-IT, all handling operations affecting virtual models draw on basic, everyday manual skills.

“For all handling operations affecting virtual models users draw on basic, everyday manual skills -selecting, placing, rotating, re-positioning, and fixing.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The authors distilled a set of ten design guidelines from their experience using activity theory for graspable groupware design.

“From the experience we gained in using activity theory for the design of graspable groupware we distilled a set of ten design guidelines.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The interaction concept treats bimanual interaction as essential.

“Bimanual interaction is an essential part of the interaction concept (bottom right).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A brick allows users to rotate and position models shown in the plan view.

“Models projected in the plan view can be rotated and positioned using a brick (bottom left).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A single person can also operate BUILD-IT.

“BUILD-IT can also be used by a single person, but that usage is not the focus of this paper or the work of our group -where social aspects are being discussed and social uses developed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

BUILD-IT provides two views of one setting: a horizontal plan view where action and perception combine, and a vertical side view.

“The system offers two perspectives of the same setting: a horizontal plan view for combined action and perception and a vertical side view (top right).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Activity theory rests on the idea that tools mediate between subjects and objects.

“Activity theory is based on the concept of tools mediating between subjects and objects.”

• cites Leont'ev (1978, 1981)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Engeström (1990, 1996)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A tool mediates activity, connecting a person to physical surroundings and to other people.

“A tool mediates an activity, thereby connecting a human being, not only to the world of objects -his or her physical surroundings -but also to other human beings.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Results of common objectification can be reports, design documents, prototypes, drawings, or software.

“The results of a process of common objectification can take the form of reports, design documents, prototypes, drawings, or software.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Augmented reality brings the virtual world of computers into the physical world of everyday human activity.

“An alternative approach offered by AR is to bring the virtual world of computers into the physical world of everyday human activity.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Activity theory holds that the development of thought and cognitive activity requires social interaction and exchange with a physical environment.

“Fundamental to modern activity theory is the idea that the development of thoughts and cognitive activity requires social interaction and exchange with a physical environment.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Aicher criticizes planners' lack of doing and overemphasis on reducing real life to inner rational activity.

“In his 'Writings on the philosophy of making ' Aicher (1996) criticizes the lack of doing by planners and the overemphasis on the reduction of real-life to inner, rational activity.”

• cites Aicher (1996)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

People must be able to employ their everyday motor faculties in computer interaction.

“Hence, people must be able to employ their everyday motor faculties in their interaction with computers.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Individual goal setting, planning, and action transfer into collective action regulation.

“The individual processes of goal setting, planning, and action are transferred intocollective action regulation (Weber, 1997(Weber, , 1999)).”

• cites Weber, 1997, 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

When mental processes are exteriorized as tools, they become more accessible to others and useful for social interaction.

“When an individual's mental processes are exteriorized in the form of tools -termed objectification -they become more accessible to other people and are therefore useful for social interaction.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Exploratory epistemic action has no specific goal for initial action; a goal is generated only after feedback.

“Exploratory epistemic action means that no specific goal is available for initial action.Only after the receipt of feedback, which gives information on the means available, can a goal be generated.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Internalization turns social interaction into mental activity.

“Via the process of internalization, social interaction turns into mental activity.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Humans control their behavior from outside by using and creating artifacts.

“The idea is that humans can control their own behavior -not 'from the inside', on the basis of biological urges, but from the outside, using and creating artifacts”

• cites Engeström (1991)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Rauterberg suggested an interface design where action space and perception space coincide to overcome this separation.

“To overcome this separation, Rauterberg (1995) suggested an alternative approach to interface design, an approach where action space and perception space coincide.”

• cites Rauterberg, 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In activity theory, a person's creative interaction with surroundings can lead to the production of tools.

“In this theory, an individual's creative interaction with his or her surroundings can result in the production of tools.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Using a tool appropriates the collective experience of humanity embodied in it.

“At the same time the use of a tool appropriates the collective experience of humanity embodied in that tool (Leont'ev, 1982).”

• cites Leont'ev, 1982Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Augmented reality is non-intrusive, using no gloves or helmets, and respects body-space.

“It is non-intrusive (Vince et al., 1999), using no gloves or helmets, and thereby respects body-space (Rauter- berg, 1999, personal communication).”

• cites Vince et al., 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Rauterberg, 1999Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Interpreting 'real' in the handling aspects as 'virtual' can overcome Kaptelinin's limitation and define the border between tool and reality.

“By interpreting the term 'real' in the handling aspects as 'virtual', we may overcome the limitations pointed out by Kaptelinin (1996), i.e. we may clearly define the border between tool and reality.”

• cites Kaptelinin (1996)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

When activity shapes surroundings, internal mental activity materializes into artifacts.

“When activity shapes those surroundings what happens is that internal mental activity materializes into artifacts.”

• cites Leont'evNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Users can draw on the advantages of a virtually enriched world, which is important for planning tasks.

“At the same time users can still draw on the advantages of a virtually enriched world, which is of particular importance to planning tasks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The first brick-based augmented reality system was described by Fitzmaurice et al.

“The first brick-based AR system was described by Fitzmaurice et al. (1995).”

• cites Fitzmaurice et al., 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The authors' design philosophy aims to facilitate creation of such results among a group of users.

“Therefore, it is part of our design philosophy to facilitate the creation of such results among a group of users.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The authors map physical aspects to hardware operation, handling aspects to operating groupware, and subject/object-directed aspects to using groupware to solve a task.

“In our work we understand the physical aspects as how to use the hardware to operate the groupware, the handling aspects as how to operate the groupware, and the subject/object-directed aspects as how to use groupware to solve a task.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Both physical and virtual models have a rightful place in a planning process.

“Thus both physical and virtual models have their rightful place in a planning process.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Virtual models can be more easily changed than physical models.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Planning activity is mainly virtual because it involves reflecting on and modifying objects that will only exist in the future.

May combine two claims.

Activity is shaped by physical surroundings and also shapes those surroundings.

“According to Leont'ev, not only is activity shaped by physical surroundings, activity in turn shapes the surroundings.”

• cites Leont'evNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Aicher advocates a closer connection between action and mental reflection, indicating a need to enable users to bring together action and reflection in human-computer interaction.

“He advocates a closer connection between action and mental reflection, indicating a need to enable users to bring together action and reflection in human computer interaction.”

• cites Aicher (1996)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Bødker distinguishes physical, handling, and subject/object-directed aspects in the use of activity.

“Another answer is found in Bødker's (1996, pp. 151-152) characterization of the different focuses in the use activity:”

• cites Bødker (1996)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The physical environment remains important because it is used for externalizing thoughts and as external memory.

“Nevertheless, the physical environment remains important, since it is used for the externalization of thoughts and as external memory.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Human development, physical surroundings, and social culture are co-evolutionary.

“In this sense we view the developmental processes of human beings, their physical surroundings and social culture as co-evolutionary.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Augmented reality means computer information is projected onto drawings so users can interact with both projected information and the paper drawing.

“According to Mackay, AR means that computer information is projected onto drawings so that users can interact with both the projected information and the paper drawing.”

• cites Mackay et al., 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

It is not sufficient to take end-user expectations and preferences as guidelines for future design.

“Based on this tradition, it is not sufficient to take end-user expectations and preferences as guidelines for future design.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

An integral part of the authors' design philosophy is gaining a detailed understanding of the target activity: cooperative planning.

“An integral part of our design philosophy is to gain a detailed understanding of the target activity: cooperative planning.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Kaptelinin suggested dealing with two interfaces instead of one user interface, with two borders separating the user from the computer and the user and computer from the outside world.

“To solve such a problem Kaptelinin (1996, p. 50) suggested:”

• cites Kaptelinin (1996, p. 50)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

A brick-based interface is significantly easier and more intuitive than a mouse-keyboard-screen.

“It was shown that a brick-based interface is significantly easier to use and more intuitive than a mouse-keyboard-screen (Rauterberg et al., 1996).”

• cites Rauterberg et al., 1996Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The fluent operation of the navigation methods depends partly on implementation and partly on computer graphics performance.

“The fluent operation of navigation methods partly relies on implementation and partly on computer graphics performance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The results of the task analysis were used to make decisions about future directions in design.

“The results were used to make decisions about future directions in our design.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

End-users would project their understanding of existing CAD functionality onto new interfaces without considering the whole socio-technical system.

“For instance, end-users would project their understanding of existing CAD functionality onto new interfaces without taking into consideration the whole socio-technical system they are part of.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Such a strategy focuses on what is already available and is of little use for innovative breakthroughs.

“Such a strategy would focus on what is already available and would be of little use for innovative breakthroughs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The task analysis strategy was to interview planning experts and observe their working processes, then elicit difficulties with the predominant sociotechnical system.

“The strategy of our task analysis was to interview planning experts and observe their working processes, then to elicit difficulties with the predominant sociotechnical system of meetings, drawings, and single-user CAD applications.”

May combine two claims.

Ware and Rose examined the use of real handles for the rotation of virtual models, supporting the decision to explore virtual solutions.

“The decision we took, is also supported by Ware and Rose (1999), who examined the use of real handles for the rotation of virtual models.”

• cites Ware and Rose, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The tools described could be significant advances toward a multi-site, multi-user system and thus a technological basis for CSCW.

“Although we have designed a co-located, multi-user groupware system, the physical and virtual tools presented in this paper may be important steps towards a multi-site, multi-user system and therefore represent a technological foundation for CSCW.”

May combine two claims.

Users need to adopt different viewpoints, gain overviews, and examine details fluently.

“It is necessary to assume different points of view, to get an overview, and to look at things in detail in a fluent manner (Brooks, 1986).”

• cites Brooks, 1986Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In marketing, tangible bricks may stimulate intuitive, play-like interaction, and potential clients may be more involved than in conventional presentations.

“3. Marketing: For presentation and marketing purposes, tangible bricks may stimulate intuitive, play-like interaction.Potential clients using the system may be more involved than in conventional presentations, where interaction is fully controlled by a salesperson.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Handling zoom through two-handed operations raises the topic of asymmetry.

“The manner in which zoom is handled, through two-handed operations, raises the topic of asymmetry (Guiard, 1987).”

• cites Guiard, 1987 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The interface allows multiple users to communicate and interact within a shared action-perception space, achieving common objectification.

“With this interface several users can communicate and interact in a coincident action perception space and thereby reach common objectification.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

For CSCW, it is important to investigate which part of an activity is genuinely cooperative and which part merely employs computers for individual work.

“For CSCW it is of particular importance to investigate which part of an activity is of a genuine cooperative nature and which part merely employs computers for individual work.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

BUILD-IT might stimulate the evolution of CAD systems.

“It might also stimulate the evolution of CAD systems.6”

May combine two claims.

BUILD-IT is not intended to replace CAD systems; instead, it could complement them before CAD in early design stages.

“In all three domains BUILD-IT will not replace CAD systems.Rather, it may serve as a pre-CAD complement in the early stages of design.5 It might also stimulate the evolution of CAD systems.6”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Not all planners are familiar with CAD systems.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: This unfamiliarity creates a division of labor between planners and CAD specialists, complicating planning.

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Because basic usage is acquired within minutes, BUILD-IT may stimulate people with different skills and knowledge to work closer together and enhance their verbal exchange.

“Therefore, it may stimulate people possessing different sets of skills and/or different modes of knowledge to work closer together and thereby enhance their (verbal) exchange.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In socio-technical systems theory, a task is the link between the human/social system and the computer/technical system.

“In the tradition of socio-technical systems theory (Emery, 1959), a task is seen as the link between the human/social system and the computer/technical system.”

• cites Emery, 1959Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The BUILD-IT project was also influenced by Gibson's ecological approach to visual perception.

“In fact, the BUILD-IT project was also nourished by thoughts stemming from 'The ecological approach to visual perception' by Gibson (1986).”

• cites Gibson (1986)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Activity theory remains difficult to access for practitioners in design and computer science.

“However, activity theory still remains difficult to access for practitioners in the fields of design and computer science.”