Working memory as a predictor of written arithmetical skills in children: The importance of central executive functions

“…control abilities do predict performance in mathematics (Brock, Rimm- Kaufman, Nathanson, & Grimm, 2009; Bull & Scerif, 2001; Espy et al., 2004; Gilmore et al., 2013; Kroesbergen et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2010; St Clair-Thompson & Gathercole, 2006; Thorell, 2007; but see Andersson, 2008).”

“On the other hand, in another study with third and fourth graders, Trail Making Task, which is a commonly used shifting measure, showed significant correlations with math and reading scores, controlling for age (Andersson, 2008).”

“…repeatedly been shown to predict more variance in academic abilities than measures of intelligence (Alloway, Bibile, & Lau, 2013; Alloway, 2009; Andersson, 2008; Lee, Ng, Ng, & Lim, 2004; Swanson, 2004), or at least comparable portions of variance (Lu, Weber, Spinath, & Shi, 2011),…”

“Poor EF is concurrently associated with difficulties in reading (e.g., Christopher et al., 2012; de Jong et al., 2009), mathematics (e.g., Andersson, 2008; Bull & Scerif, 2001), and language (e.g., Lonigan et al., 2016; McClelland et al., 2007), and it is longitudinally predictive of academic…”

“Correlational studies have also demonstrated a relationship between working memory and procedural skill (Andersson, 2008; Cowan & Powell, 2014; Fuchs et al., 2010; Wilson & Swanson, 2001) (but see Fuchs et al., 2006; Träff, 2013), although there are mixed findings concerning whether simple storage…”

“According to several studies (Andersson, 2008; Van der Sluis et al., 2007), shifting ability is believed to be involved in mathematical performance by supporting alternation between strategies and subsolutions in multistep mathematics problems, and inhibition ability is believed to be necessary for…”

“…fact, EF have been shown to explain at least as much variance in academic achievement as intelligence (e.g., Swanson, 2004; Altemeier et al., 2008; Andersson, 2008; Alloway and Alloway, 2010; Lu et al., 2011), which is usually considered the most powerful predictor of academic success (e.g.,…”

“More specifically working memory is a strong predictor of arithmetic skills (Andersson, 2008), which are the predominant forms of mathematics learning in Bangladeshi elementary school system.”

“In fact, WM has been shown to explain at least as much variance in academic achievement as intelligence (e.g., Alloway, Bibile, & Lau, 2013; Andersson, 2008; Lu et al., 2011; Swanson, 2004), which is usually considered the most powerful predictor of academic success (e.g., Gottfredson, 2002; cf.…”

“Previous studies have found that better working memory is associated with superior scholastic skills, including arithmetic, reading, and writing, and general academic achievement in school-aged children (34 – 36).”

“The hypothesis was confirmed and is in line with those from many studies that have investigated the relationship between cognition and school achievements (e.g., Alloway & Alloway, 2010; Andersson, 2008; Ashcraft & Krause, 2007).”

“…current study was to extend existing research that has focused on the relationships between individual mathematical skills and working memory (e.g., Andersson, 2008; Camos, 2008; Holmes & Adams, 2006; Rasmussen & Bisanz, 2005) by examining the relationships between working memory and single-digit…”

“…emanates from converging evidence showing that cognitive functions such as working memory, executive functions, semantic memory and processing speed are involved in mathematical performance in both adults and children (Andersson, 2007; 2008a; Fuchs et al., 2005; Swanson, Jerman, & Zheng, 2008).”

“, 2018a) and shifting (Van der Sluis et al., 2007; Andersson, 2008) have also been observed in children with SLD.”

“…domain general cognitive deficit underlying MLD (Geary, 2004; Geary and Hoard, 2005), which emanates from converging evidence showing that such cognitive functions are involved in mathematical performance in both adults and children (Fuchs et al., 2005; Andersson, 2007, 2008; Swanson et al., 2008).”

“The overall results from Models A and B are consistent with the notion that working memory provides a flexible and efficient workspace during mathematical performances (Andersson, 2008; Fürst & Hitch, 2000; Geary & Hoard, 2005; Logie, Gilhooly, & Wynn, 1994; Seitz & SchumannHengsteler, 2000; Swanson, 2004).”

“Therefore, it is possible that VSWM is employed to a greater extent during the procurement of new skills, and to a lesser extent once children achieve mastery of such skills (Andersson 2008).”

“For example, working memory and cognitive flexibility deficits have been reported to constrain children’s counting abilities, fact retrieval (Geary, Hoard, Nugent, & Bailey, 2012; Noel, 2009), and mathematics problem solving (Andersson, 2008; Swanson, Jerman, & Zheng, 2008).”

“Central executive/executive functions have been found to positively relate to math outcomes such as arithmetic (Andersson, 2008), fact retrieval and accuracy (Marzocchi, Lucangeli, De Meo, Fini, & Cornoldi, 2002), number line task performance (Geary, Hoard, Nugent, & Byrd-Craven, 2008), and…”

“In the field of mathematics, several studies have found evidence demonstrating the contribution of all the three EF components to performance on different mathematical domains: WM (Agostino, Johnson, & Pascual-Leone, 2010; Alloway & Passolunghi, 2011; Andersson, 2008; Bull, Espy, & Wiebe, 2008; Holmes & Adams, 2006),…”

“…growth in single-digit arithmetic (e.g., Andersson & Lyxell, 2007; Bull, Espy, & Wiebe, 2008; Krajewski & Schneider, 2009; Mazzocco & Kover, 2007), but they are consistent with other published studies (e.g., Andersson, 2008; Rasmussen & Bisanz, 2005; St Clair-Thompson & Gathercole, 2006).”

“Furthermore, since the ability to inhibit task-irrelevant information from gaining access to working memory is critical to working memory function and efficient mathematical performance [50] and such inhibitory influences have been associated with increases in delta [29] and alpha activity, we hypothesize that power i…”

“Several studies conclude that arithmetic computation heavily relies on verbal WM (Andersson, 2008; Bull & Johnston, 1997; Fuchs et al., 2005; Hecht, 2002; Lemaire, 1996; Seitz & Schumann-Hengsteler, 2002).”

“, 2013), and updating (Andersson, 2008; Berg, 2008; Bull et al., 2008; Geary, 2011) on mathematics achievement.”

“Indeed, most studies have found working memory to be more predictive of academic achievement than measures of intelligence (Andersson, 2008; Lee & Ng, 2009; Swanson, 2004) (cf.”

“Limitations to working memory can vary widely among NH children and is closely associated with children’s learning ability [41,42], and deficits in working memory have been associated with learning difficulties [28,40,43–44].”

“, 2005; Saffran, Johnson, Aslin, & Newport, 1999), and (e) arithmetical skill (Alloway & Passolunghi, 2011; Andersson, 2008). Research on differences in verbal memory measures between musicians and nonmusicians concluded that better working memory task performances in musicians are possibly due to the ability to maint…”

“researchers to investigate both the cognitive abilities and environmental factors that might influence word problem solving or control the development of word problem skills (Andersson, 2008; Fuchs et al., 2006). So far, most earlier work to seek the factors behind word problem solving has concentrated on elementary s…”

“Many studies have investigated the predictive value of working memory, specifically for learning arithmetic (eg, Andersson, 2008; Andersson and Lyxell, 2007; Bull et al., 2008; De Smedt et al., 2009; Geary et al., 2007, 2012b; Jarvis and Gathercole, 2003; Krajewski and Schneider, 2009; Mazzocco and…”

“[35] However, it has been speculated that children with ADHD with poor inhibition function and attention shifting function may experience learning difficulties and, thus, lead to LD.[25] Hence, the relationship among cognitive deficits, ADHD, and LD needs to be further investigated.”

“These abilities are an important part of children’s wider success in controlling and regulating social and emotional skills (Andersson, 2008; Blair & Razza, 2007; Thorell, Lindqvist, Bergman Nutley, Bohlin, & Klingberg, 2009).”

“, 2011), problem solving more broadly (Swanson, 2004), written and verbal calculation (Andersson, 2008), as well as mathematical word problem accuracy (Andersson, 2007; Zheng et al.”

“In contrast, in studies in which fluency scores were used, working memory did not predict mathematics (e.g., Andersson, 2008; Cantin et al., 2016; Purpura et al., 2017).”

“The age group chosen also aligns with a period of intensive skill acquisition; a time when VSWM is most likely employed (Andersson, 2008). Spatial-sequential tasks requiring order during the recall phase, as well as those that do not require order during recall, were used to ensure the model was fully crossed. The mai…”

“Working memory is the ability to store information while doing other cognitively draining tasks (Gathercole et al., 2006), and many studies have shown that poor working memory is a primary cognitive signature of dyscalculia (Allen et al., 2020; Andersson, 2008; Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001).”

“For example, recent studies have investigated the roles of general executive functions, such as working memory and inhibition, in mathematical achievement (Andersson, 2008; Cragg & Gilmore, 2014; Geary, 2004; Passolunghi & Siegel, 2004).”

“Further, the suggestion of a cyclical relationship between visuospatial working memory and verbal working memory conforms to the assumption that visuospatial working memory relates more strongly to the acquisition of new skills (Andersson, 2008).”

“Similarly, mathematical problems require the concurrent storage of task instructions and running totals (Andersson, 2008; Kyttälä, Aunio, Lepola, & Hautamaki, 2014).”

“…accepted that executive functions (primarily updating) do not only support counting but also exert dominant influence on arithmetic performance (Andersson, 2008; Bull and Scerif, 2001; Deschuyteneer et al., 2006; DeStefano and LeFevre, 2004; Jarvis and Gathercole, 2003; Logie et al., 1994;…”

“Some studies have found that PSTM tasks were significant predictors of arithmetic performance (e.g., Andersson, 2008; Berg, 2008; Leather & Henry, 1994; Maybery & Do, 2003; Swanson, 2006).”

“, 2006; Nevo & Breznitz, 2011; Swanson & Jerman, 2007), and mathematical ability (Andersson, 2008; Jerman et al., 2012).”

“In a study in which visuospatial and verbal updating were included in the analyses, Andersson (2008) found that verbal updating contributed to arithmetic fluency.”

“Students benefit from a WM system that is ef-ficient and flexible (Andersson, 2008).”

“Previous studies have found a relation between EF and intelligence (Andersson, 2008; Molfese et al., 2010; Karbach and Unger, 2014); however, EF is even more predictive of academic success than IQ (Gathercole et al.”

“Therefore, and as most studies agree that numerical performance is especially related to CE abilities (Andersson, 2008; De Smedt et al., 2009; Holmes & Adams, 2006; Kroesbergen et al., 2009), future training studies should develop programs focusing on CE.”

“Therefore, VSWM could be considered a cognitive process underlying different abilities that mediates the relationship among different cognitive processes [21].”

“Andersson (2008) asserts that individual differences in mathematical problem solving of learners aged 9–10 years are attributed to the phonological system as he found that these learners primarily applied verbal coding tactics during written mathematical tasks.”

“Different components of executive function, such as working memory [47], inhibition control [48] and cognitive flexibility [49], are key factors that affect students’ mathematical success.”

“EFs (especially WM) are more predictive of academic success than FSIQs [72,73] and reflect the child’s degree of educational investment [74].”

“Different tasks involving the executive function can lead to mixed results with problem solving (Andersson, 2008; Pascual et al., 2019; Yeniad et al., 2013).”

“Other studies have observed that reading skills are uniquely predictive of concurrent multidigit calculation and arithmetic word problem-solving (Andersson, 2007, 2008; Swanson et al., 2008; Swanson & Beebe-Frankenberger, 2004).”

“Working memory is considered to be an important factor as well when predicting children’s achievement even if studies control for intelligence (e.g., Andersson, 2008).”

“The phonological loop is the storage unit for auditory information and is involved in word problems (Andersson, 2007) and keeping track of accurate intermediary results (Andersson, 2008).”

“Math fluency is based on basic arithmetic operations that depend on recovery of number facts from long-term memory (Andersson, 2008), and therefore is expected to pose minimal demands on participants’ attentional/working memory capacity.”

“, 2022), and decreased working memory performances has been linked to difficulties solving mathematical problems (Swanson and Jerman, 2006; Andersson, 2008; Zhang et al., 2018).”

“In addition, other components of executive function (e.g., shifting; Andersson 2008; Bull & Scerif, 2001), other phonological processing skills (e.g., rapid automatized naming; Yang et al., 2022) and visual spatial abilities (e.g., mental rotation; Mix et al., 2016) might also have repercussions on…”

“CE1 – Visuospatial skills have been suggested to be involved in the acquisition of new mathematical skills, but to a lesser extent once those skills have been mastered (Andersson, 2008).”