Measuring Colonial Extraction: The East India Company’s Rule and the Drain of Wealth (1757–1858)

The quote only partly states this claim.

The East India Company's debt accumulated from territorial deficits.

“The EIC's debt accumulated both from its territorial deficits and from British trade deficits with India that had not been settled with bullion.”

May combine two claims.

In 1857-1858, total gross revenue in nominal value was four times what it had been in 1787-1788, and the increase was heterogeneous across presidencies.

“In 1857-1858, total gross revenue in nominal value was four times what it had been in 1787-1788, an increase that was heterogeneous across presidencies.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The East India Company budgets and UK parliamentary returns accurately and completely record the revenues and expenses they purport to measure.

May combine two claims.

The cost of revenue collection averaged 21 percent and was quite constant from 1787-1788 to 1857-1858.

“Figure 2 shows the cost of revenue collection, which amounted on average to 21 percent and was quite constant from 1787-1788 to 1857-1858.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The East India Company budgets and UK parliamentary returns accurately and completely record the revenues and expenses they purport to measure.

May combine two claims.

After the Charter Act of 1833, charges in England increased substantially and represented a large and increasing proportion of expenditure.

“After the Charter Act of 1833, charges in England increased substantially.They represented a large and increasing proportion of expenditure.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The East India Company budgets and UK parliamentary returns accurately and completely record the revenues and expenses they purport to measure.

May combine two claims.

Land tax represented more than three-quarters of total revenue in 1787-1788 but only half by 1857-1858.

“It represented more than three-quarters of total revenue in 1787-1788, but only half of total revenue by 1857-1858.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The East India Company budgets and UK parliamentary returns accurately and completely record the revenues and expenses they purport to measure.

May combine two claims.

The East India Company treated commercial-financial and territorial affairs as complementary and combined accounting for the two branches.

“The EIC conceived of commercial-financial and territorial affairs as complementary and, as a consequence, combined accounting related to the two branches of activity.”

May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

The total amount of debt registered in East India Company budgets comprised both territorial and commercial debt, and these were serviced by drawing on territorial revenues, making commercial debt costless for the commercial branch because its interest was charged to the territorial account.

“Therefore, commercial debt was costless for the commercial branch of the EIC because the interest it generated was charged to the territorial account.”

May combine two claims.

Commercial debt increased by £9 million from 1798 to 1803, implying an annual amount of £1.8 million.

“I find that commercial debt increased by £9 million from 1798 to 1803, implying an annual amount of £1.8 million.”

May combine two claims.

The author's compiled fiscal balance data for East India Company rule do not show a small fiscal capacity, but rather a fiscal expenditure deliberately channeled to the army, civil administration, and management of debt, according to Company preferences and with British Parliament approval.

“However, the data I have compiled on the fiscal balances for the period of EIC rule in India offer a diff er ent picture.They do not show a small fiscal capacity, but rather a fiscal expenditure deliberately channeled to the army, the civil administration, and the management of debt, according to EIC preferences and with the approval of the British Parliament.”

May combine two claims.

Unrequited exports kept increasing from 1833 to 1858, when the East India Company's territorial charter ceased, and in 1858 they represented 13 percent of Indian GDP and nearly 9 percent of British GDP.

“Unrequited exports kept increasing from 1833 to 1858, when the EIC's territorial charter ceased.In 1858, they represented 13 percent of Indian GDP and nearly 9 percent of British GDP.”

May combine two claims.

Cuenca-Esteban estimated outstanding commercial debt at £30.2 million in 1815, and because total East India Company debt is compiled in Company budgets, this gives territorial debt in 1815 as total debt minus commercial debt.

“For that date, Cuenca-Esteban has estimated the outstanding commercial debt at £30.2 million.”

• Also stated in: § EIC Debt: Unrequited Exports · plain

  “Because the total debt of the EIC is compiled in the EIC bud gets, this in turn gives me the territorial debt in 1815.Territorial debt is the total debt minus the commercial debt (equation 5):”

• cites Cuenca-Esteban, "British Balance of Payments," 66Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Famines during East India Company rule caused massive mortality, including the Bengal famine of 1769-1770 killing 30 percent of 10 million inhabitants, the Doji bara famine of 1791-1792 killing about 11 million in Madras Presidency, and the Agra famine of 1837-1838 killing around 800,000 with 5 out of 8.5 million seriously stricken in the North-Western Provinces.

“Following the Bengal famine of 1769-1770, which claimed the lives of 30 percent of the local population of 10 million inhabitants”

• cites Ghosh, Famines in Bengal, appendixNot matched

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• cites Mahalanobis and Bhattacharya, "Growth and Population"Not matched

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• cites Visaria and Visaria, "Population," appendix 5.2Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Commercial debt increased substantially in absolute value during the first half of the nineteenth century, reaching more than 10 percent of total Indian GDP and nearly 10 percent of British GDP in 1833, when the East India Company's commercial charter was terminated.

“Turning to dynamics, Figure 4 shows that commercial debt increased substantially in absolute value during the first half of the nineteenth century, reaching more than 10 percent of total Indian GDP-and nearly 10 percent of British GDP-in 1833, when the EIC's commercial charter was terminated.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Marine expenses accounted for 2 percent of total East India Company expenses.

“Marine expenses amounted to 2 percent of total expenses and comprised collections from inward and outward pi lotage and the costs of moorings, light houses, duties, and so on.”

May combine two claims.

Gross revenues tripled in Bengal, multiplied by about five in the North-Western Provinces and Madras Presidency, and increased thirty-fold in Bombay.

“Gross revenues tripled in Bengal, were multiplied by about five in the North-Western Provinces and Madras Presidency, and increased thirty-fold in Bombay.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

During the 1820s, the East India Company lowered Madras land tax in stages until it reached one-third of gross produce.

“According to Dutt, land tax in Madras was too high, so in the 1820s the EIC reduced it gradually to one-third of the gross produce.”

• cites DuttNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The East India Company's accounts cover three activities: taxation, trade, and finance.

“The accounting reflects the EIC's three activities: taxation, trade, and finance.”

May combine two claims.

The East India Company's accounting logic stayed stable over the long run, although itemization changed substantially and became more granular.

“The accounting logic remained stable over the long run, even though itemization changed substantially, with granularity, in par tic u lar, increasing gradually.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The vast majority of small landowning peasants, tenants, and sharecroppers had no resources to invest in improving agriculture.

“The vast majority of small landowning peasants, tenants, and sharecroppers had no resources to invest in the improvement of agriculture.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The Company's systematic accounts also permit conceptualizing the drain's channels and how they relate to one another.

“On the other, the systematic accounting provides both consolidated data and very detailed rec ords that make it possi ble not only to mea sure the drain of wealth but also, more importantly, to conceptualize its channels and the interrelations among them.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The intermingling of commercial and territorial items in the East India Company's accounts does not prevent measuring the drain of wealth.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Missing bullion flows and China trade in the East India Company's budgets do not prevent measuring the drain of wealth.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Allowances and assignments to local rulers established in treaties played a significant role in the East India Company's diplomatic strategy of territorial expansion.

“Allowances and assignments to local rulers established in treaties played a significant role in the EIC's diplomatic strategy of territorial expansion.”

• cites Bayly, Indian Society, 111Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Colonialism's drain of wealth is a plausible explanatory factor for the differing outcomes because India's real output stagnated during East India Company rule.

“Colonialism's drain of wealth can be considered a plausible explanatory factor in these differing outcomes as India's real output stagnated during EIC rule.”

• cites Broadberry, Custodis, and Gupta, "India and the Great Divergence," 69Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In zamindari areas, landowners collected taxes in exchange for property but failed to invest in land and charged excessive rent.

“Landowners collected taxes in exchange for property, but they failed to invest in land and charged excessive rent in zamindari areas”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Landlords took no interest in agriculture beyond collecting rent and found charging excessive rent and interest more profitable, safe, and congenial than productive investment in land.

“Landlords took no interest in agriculture beyond collecting rent.Instead, they found charging excessive rent and interest far more profitable, safe, and congenial than making productive investments in land.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Poor peasants paid confiscatory land taxes to landlords who received high rents for collecting taxes.

“Poor peasants paid confiscatory land taxes to landlords who received high rents for collecting taxes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In ryotwari areas, peasant proprietors fell into debt to exploitative lenders and lost control over their lands.

“peasant proprietors fell into debt to exploitative lenders and lost control over their lands in ryotwari areas.”

May combine two claims.

The Company's systematic accounts offer both consolidated figures and detailed records sufficient to measure the drain of wealth.

“On the other, the systematic accounting provides both consolidated data and very detailed rec ords that make it possi ble not only to mea sure the drain of wealth but also, more importantly, to conceptualize its channels and the interrelations among them.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The intermingling of commercial and territorial items in the East India Company's accounts does not prevent measuring the drain of wealth.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Missing bullion flows and China trade in the East India Company's budgets do not prevent measuring the drain of wealth.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The savings of small peasant landowners were usually consumed by famine, scarcity, and economic depression.

“the savings of small peasant landowners were usually consumed by famine, scarcity, and economic depression.”

May combine two claims.

India did not achieve long-run economic growth despite East India Company rule raising its fiscal capacity to a revenue-to-GDP ratio similar to that of the United Kingdom.

“India, on the contrary, did not achieve economic growth in the long run despite the fact that EIC rule increased its fiscal capacity to a ratio of revenue to GPD similar to that of the United Kingdom.”

• cites Broadberry, Custodis, and Gupta, "India and the Great Divergence," 69Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

British imperial expenses represented a diversion of India's revenue for British imperial purposes.

“These expenses represented a diversion of India's revenue for British imperial purposes.”

May combine two claims.

Rationalizing tax collection did not reduce costs but instead transferred the benefits of exploitation from traditional local elites to British colonial officers.

“Therefore, rationalizing tax collection did not reduce costs, but instead transferred the benefits of exploitation from traditional local elites to British colonial officers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Salt was a state monopoly inherited from the Mughal Empire.

“Salt was a state monopoly inherited from the Mughal Empire.”

May combine two claims.

Unskilled workers lived below bare-bones subsistence in the first half of the nineteenth century, using nearly their entire wage to buy inferior food grains and leaving no margin for non-food expenditure.

“These unskilled workers lived below bare-bones subsistence levels in the first half of the nineteenth century, as they had to use nearly their entire wage to buy inferior food grains, leaving no margin for non-food expenditure.”

• cites Atkinson, Statistical Descriptive and Historical Account, vol.3, part.2, 303Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Moosvi, Economy of the Mughal Empire, 340-45Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The East India Company introduced a profitable state monopoly on opium production and sale in India in the 1770s.

“The EIC famously introduced a profitable state mono poly on the production and sale of opium in India in the 1770s.”

May combine two claims.

The British colonial administration repatriated gains to London and used only European clothes and shoes.

“But the British colonial administration repatriated gains to London and used only Eu ro pean clothes and shoes.”

• cites Maddison, Class Structure and Economic Growth, 55Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Bagchi, Po liti cal Economy of Underdevelopment, 25-28Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The British state provided external security, internal stability, and property rights, and funded a mercantilist strategy that fostered commercial gains from an expanding global economy.

“The state not only provided external security, internal stability, and sustained protection for property rights, but above all funded an effective mercantilist strategy that fostered commercial gains from servicing an expanding global economy.”

• cites O'Brien, "Nature and Historical Evolution of an Exceptional Fiscal State," 439, and "Costs and Benefits of Mercantilist Warfare," 105, 108Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The jama for the first two years after acquisition in 1801-1802 matched the previous jama by the nawab of Oude, but the East India Company raised land revenue rates between 1803 and 1805.

“The assessment (jama) of the first two years following acquisition (1801-1802) was the same as the previous jama performed by the nawab of Oude, but after that, between 1803 and 1805, the EIC raised land revenue rates.”

• cites Mann, "Permanent Settlement," 252Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, high land taxation eroded the peasants' surplus.

“Throughout the eigh teenth and nineteenth centuries, high land taxation eroded the peasants' surplus.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The end of Akbar's reign was the high point of economic well-being during the Mughal Empire.

“Admittedly, the end of Akbar' reign was the high point of economic well-being during the Mughal Empire.”

• cites Broadberry, Custodis, and Gupta, "India and the Great Divergence," 60Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Moneylenders and merchants used their increasing share of agricultural surplus to raise interest rates or acquire land in order to become landlords themselves.

“Moneylenders and merchants used their increasing share of agricultural surplus to raise interest rates or to acquire property in land, with the objective of becoming landlords themselves.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The East India Company also collected small duties such as post-office collections, stamp duties, mint duties, and excise duties.

“the EIC also collected a variety of small duties, such as post-office collections, stamp duties, mint duties, excise duties, and so on.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Britain is considered the exceptionally successful fiscal state in European history.

“Britain is considered the exceptionally successful fiscal state in Eu ro pean history.”

• cites O'Brien, "Nature and Historical Evolution of an Exceptional Fiscal State," 439, and "Costs and Benefits of Mercantilist Warfare," 105, 108Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Customs included internal and maritime customs, with internal customs remaining in force until the 1830s.

“Customs comprised both internal and maritime customs, with the former remaining in force until the 1830s.”

May combine two claims.

Regressive taxation caused high inequality, extreme poverty, and ultimately agricultural stagnation.

“This caused high inequality, extreme poverty, and ultimately agricultural stagnation.”

• cites Naoroji, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, 58-61Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Only during East India Company rule in the early nineteenth century did Indian per capita incomes fall close to subsistence levels, while land taxes were kept high and even increased.

“It was only during EIC rulein the early nineteenth century-that Indian per capita incomes fell close to subsistence levels, precisely as land taxes were kept high and even increased.”

• cites Broadberry, Custodis, and Gupta, "India and the Great Divergence," 69-70Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Between 1757 and 1857, the East India Company eliminated three-quarters of the warlord aristocracy and more than half of local chieftains, establishing a bureaucracy in their place.

“Between 1757 and 1857, the EIC eliminated threequarters of the warlord aristocracy (all except those in princely states) and more than half of local chieftains, establishing a bureaucracy in their place.”

• cites Maddison, Class Structure and Economic Growth, 54-55Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

More systematic revenue collection was applied at the same time, so total land revenues ultimately increased.

“more rigorously systematic collection was si mul ta neously applied, so that, in the end, total land revenues actually increased.”

• cites Dutt, Economic History of India, 231, 369Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In Western European history, fiscal capacity has been associated with economic performance, and greater state power to extract revenues was better for long-run economic growth.

“In Western Eu ro pean history, fiscal capacity has been associated with economic per for mance.The higher the power of a state to extract revenues, the better it was for economic growth in the long run.”

• cites Dincecco, State CapacityNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The Company's records combine data with useful qualitative information that aids interpretation.

“On the one hand, the EIC compiled data together with valuable qualitative information that facilitates their interpretation.”

May combine two claims.

The Mughal revenue system was flexible in times of crisis, with remissions, loans, grain distribution, and charity from temples and financial elites.

“Christopher Bayly agrees that the Mughal revenue system was flexible in times of crisis.”

• Also stated in: § EIC Fiscal Balances: Expenses · plain

  “Kumar writes that the Mughal state tried to counteract the effects of famine with loans and the distribution of grain from public granaries.Moreover, temples and financial elites provided charity in cash and food, although public and private resources were limited.”

• cites Bayly, Indian Society, 89-90Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kumar, "States and Civil Socie ties in Modern Asia," 2268Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Great restrictions were placed on financing irrigation infrastructure, and the East India Company limited its expenditure to the estimated returns irrigation would bring by enabling cultivation of new areas and increasing land revenue.

“Great restrictions were placed on financing irrigation infrastructure, and the EIC limited its expenditure to the estimated returns irrigation would bring by enabling the cultivation of new areas and thus increasing land revenue.”

May combine two claims.

The East India Company charged extractive land taxes in a society whose GDP per capita fell close to bare-bones subsistence in the early nineteenth century.

“In fact, the EIC charged extractive land taxes in a society whose GDP per capita fell close to bare-bones subsistence in the early nineteenth century.”

May combine two claims.

Taxation based mainly on land revenues intensified poverty and probably made agriculture less productive.

“Taxation based mainly on land revenues intensified poverty and prob ably made agriculture less productive.”

May combine two claims.

East India Company debt included both territorial and commercial liabilities, but interest on it was paid exclusively from territorial revenue.

“that debt included both territorial and commercial liabilities, but interest on it was paid exclusively with territorial revenue.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Britain consumed this tribute without exporting anything to India in return.

“That is, Britain simply consumed this tribute without exporting anything to India in return.”

May combine two claims.

India received no specie or goods to balance its trade accounts; instead, money to pay for commodities the East India Company shipped to London arose ultimately from land revenue collected in India.

“India received no specie or goods to balance its trade accounts; instead, money to pay for commodities the EIC shipped to London arose ultimately from land revenue collected in India.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

East India Company accounting is an invaluable primary source for measuring the drain of wealth.

“As the quantitative registry of EIC territorial affairs in India, EIC accounting is an invaluable primary source for mea sur ing the drain of wealth.”

May combine two claims.

Because land taxes primarily affected agricultural laborers, they lived below subsistence levels.

“Because land taxes primarily affected agricultural laborers, they lived below subsistence levels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The British Parliament held the East India Company accountable for its Indian territories with the Regulating Act of 1773 and Pitt's India Act of 1784, and from then until the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Company territorial accounting developed according to British Parliament regulations, for which it was produced and to which it was submitted.

“The British Parliament held the EIC accountable for its Indian territories with the Regulating Act of 1773 and Pitt's India Act of 1784, and from that moment until the Indian Rebellion of 1857, EIC territorial accounting developed according to the regulations of the British Parliament, for which it was produced and to which it was submitted.”

May combine two claims.

Macaulay advocated a compromise that charged the Company's commercial debts to Indian society, and the final compromise between the East India Company and the British Crown transferred the whole debt burden to Indian public debt, with the 1833 acts establishing that Company debts would be serviced by Indian territorial revenue.

“Indeed, the final compromise reached between the EIC and the British Crown transferred the whole debt burden from the EIC to Indian public debt.The 1833 acts established that from then on, EIC debts would be ser viced by the revenue of the Indian territories.”

• cites Macaulay, "Government of India," 555, 552Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Act to Regulate the Trade to China and India, 1833, 3 & 4 Will 4, c. 93Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In the second half of the eighteenth century, the East India Company began issuing Company bills payable in London for British trade with India and China, and Company bills payable in Bengal for British trade with China; short-term commercial debt sometimes became long-term debt, and the Company's funding of private trade continued after 1833.

“In the second half of the eigh teenth century, the East India Com pany began issuing Com pany bills payable in London for British trade with India and China, and Com pany bills payable in Bengal (and, rarely, Bombay) for British trade with China.”

• Also stated in: § EIC Debt: Unrequited Exports · plain

  “The EIC's funding of private trade with India continued after it ceased its trading activity in 1833, since the EIC controlled the system of transferring money between India and Britain until the 1850s.”

• cites Greenberg, British TradeNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Chung, "Britain-China-India Trade Triangle"Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Suzuki, "Rise and Decline of the Oriental Bank Corporation"Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

East India Company rule entirely neglected the public works department, and agriculture deteriorated as a result.

“EIC rule in India entirely neglected the public works department, and hence agriculture deteriorated.”

• cites Marx, "The British Rule in India," New-York Daily Tribune (June 10, 1853)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The East India Company's land tax rates were based on those of previous Mughal rulers, implying threads of continuity between Mughal rule and Company rule, but this does not reduce the extractive nature of land taxation.

“The fact that the EIC's land tax rates were based on those of previous Mughal rulers implies threads of continuity between Mughal rule and that of the EIC, but it does not reduce the extractive nature of land taxation.”

May combine two claims.

Some work-relief agencies were opened, but financial orthodoxy stood in the way of extensive relief efforts.

“Some work-relief agencies were opened, but financial orthodoxy stood in the way of extensive relief efforts.”

May combine two claims.

Roads, canals, and bridges had been allowed to fall into ruin, and the construction and maintenance of village tanks and watercourses were not the responsibility of the East India Company government.

“Roads, canals, and bridges had been allowed to fall into ruin, and the construction and maintenance of village tanks and watercourses were not the responsibility of the EIC government.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

High salaries were intended to ensure integrity and end the corruption of the first two decades after the battle of Plassey.

“High salaries were supposed to ensure integrity and put an end to the corruption of the first two de cades after the battle of Plassey.”

• cites Richards, "Fiscal States in Mughal," 428Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Mann, "From Ledger to Bud get."Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Corruption was not registered in the accounting and therefore could not be taken into account.

“This article cannot take corruption into account because it was not registered in the accounting, which reflected only the legal drain of wealth.”