The Glass Ceiling Effect

“Glass ceiling research tells us women are routinely passed over for promotions (Cotter et al. 2001; Maume 1999).”

“Following other studies that have dealt with the glass ceiling (i.e., Dulepp and Sanders 1992; Wright, Baxter, and Birkelund 1995; Athey, Avery, and Zemksy 2000; Cotter et al. 2001) in this study we empirically define “powerful” or “high-level” positions as management positions.”

“…addressed women’s access to managerial authority (Blum, Fields, and Goodman 1994; Huffman and Cohen 2004a; Reskin and McBrier 2000; Smith 2002) and the “glass ceiling”—an unseen barrier between women and management or highstatus positions (Cotter et al. 2001; Hultin 2003; Wright and Baxter 2000).”

“On this subject, studies by Cotter et al. (2001) and Morgan (1998) are instructive, albeit indirect.”

“Using a hierarchical linear models framework, Cotter et al. (2001) explore models with some similarity to the ones presented here.”

“Broadly, compared to men, women face gendered structural barriers constraining their opportunities in the labor market (Budig 2002; Cotter et al. 2001).”

“Compared to men, women are less likely to hold managerial positions (Cotter et al. 2001); serve on executive boards (Ragins, Townsend, and Mattis 1998); become partners in law firms (e.”

“Sticky floor explains systematic ways in which women are denied of opportunities to advance from lower elchlon position in their organizations and a large pay gap exists between each echelon of the wage distributions (Cotter et al., 2001).”

“How is it that men end up numerically dominating occupations that women andmen alike prefer? It is here that wemust make reference to the complex of social processes that serve to privilege men in the competition for the most desirable occupations (e.g., Strober and Catanzarite 1994; Cotter et al. 2001; Reskin 2008; G…”

“…inequality among both men and women in recent years make this project particularly salient, as does the fact that wage differentials according to gender increase with age for younger cohorts, despite cross-sectional declines in gender wage inequality (Blau and Kahn 2000; Cotter et al. 2001).”

“This third component is well illustrated by the idea of a glass ceiling, which refers not to women’s under-representation in management but their exclusion from the most lucrative and powerful positions within this class (Cotter et al. 2001; U.S. Federal Glass Ceiling Commission 1995).”

“This is evidence also consistent with Cotter et al. (2001), who report evidence of the glass ceiling for women.”

“(Cotter et al. 2001) Unfortunately, very little is known about non-searchers and the non-search process.”

“Our analysis thus substantiates other studies using aggregate data, which find both wage and hiring differentials (NSF Science and Engineering Indicators 2008) and a glass ceiling (Cotter et al. 2001) in the academy.”

“The women interviewed were also primarily Caucasian, and so some issues related to intersectionality (Collins, 2015) and the “concrete ceiling” (Cotter et al., 2001) for women from racial or ethnic minority groups could not be fully explored.”

“This phenomenon occurs because of the obstacles and barriers women face that make it difficult to progress at the same rate as their male counterparts (Cotter et al., 2001; de Welde and Laursen, 2011; Zeng, 2011).”

“4 Thus, women, regardless of their race or ethnicity, tend to be concentrated in a relatively small number of occupations, a concentration that is also related to the “glass ceiling effect”—a distinctively gendered, but not racial, phenomenon (Cotter et al. 2001).”

“In our baseline analyses, we follow Cotter et al. (2001) and exclude family-related variables from the set of baseline qualification controls.”

“…have reported results consistent with the glass ceiling notion that gender inequality is more severe at the top of the reward distribution (e.g., Cotter et al. 2001), others have found evidence of ‘‘sticky floors,’’ wherein women’s disadvantages are most pronounced at lower levels of the reward…”

“However, women in executive and managerial occupations have 11 percent higher odds of switching occupations than those in white-collar occupations, possibly due to well documented barriers to entry that females face in those occupational groups (Cotter et al., 2001).”

“Women and racial/ethnic minorities face persistent biases in hiring, promotion, and pay (e.g., Cotter et al. 2001; Stainback and Tomaskovic-Devey 32 ILR REVIEW 2009); are less likely to be seen as competent employees (e.g., Feagin and Sikes 1994; Correll, Benard, and Paik 2007); and are more likely…”

“A large body of research examines changes in women’s representation in managerial occupations and the “glass ceiling,” which blocks women’s access to high-level positions and corporate boards ( Cotter, Hermsen, Ovadia, & Vanneman, 2001; Hultin, 2003; Smith, 2002; Wright & Baxter, 2000).”

“The existence of the glass ceiling effect is well documented [8, 16, 30].”

“Cotter et al. (2001) profound description of the term as a specific form of generic inequality existing at the apex of hierarchy contradicts others (Reskin and Padavic, 2001; Maume, 2004) claiming its existence in lower levels and working class jobs.”

“…Midwest Sociological Society336 minorities, there indeed remain “unseen, yet unbreachable barriers that keeps [them] from rising to the upper rungs of the corporate ladder, regardless of their qualifications or achievements” (Federal Glass Ceiling Commission 1995:4; see also Cotter et al. 2001).”

“, 2018), whereas women face a glass ceiling that is hard to break through (Cotter et al., 2001).”

“Much scholarship has looked beyond individual-level explanations to interrogate the complex organizational factors that prevent women from entering leadership roles, such as the informal, invisible “barriers” captured by the metaphor of the “glass ceiling” (Cotter et al. 2001).”

“This is consistent with a glass ceiling effect, which posits that barriers become more pronounced as one moves up organizational hierarchies (Cotter et al. 2001).”

“First, women may encounter the proverbial glass ceiling in the workplace (e.g., Cotter et al. 2001; Elliott and Smith 2004).”

“Following the idea of the glass ceiling, a metaphor for the invisible barrier limiting the advancement of women in the workplace [24], we call this bias against marginalized individuals perpetuated by computing processes the silicon ceiling .”

“Segregation of this kind—together with differential rates of promotion—is emphasized by research on glass ceilings in hierarchical employment systems (see Morgan 1998; Valian 1998; Cotter et al. 2001).”

“As suggested in the discourse on ‘glass ceiling’ effects, the amount of discrimination may well increase with job level (Cotter et al., 2001; Maume, 2004).”

“This paradoxical situation creates a glass ceiling effect (Cotter et al., 2001), which intensifies at higher levels of advancement, as one ascends the hierarchy and gains professional experience.”

“Foundational studies of glass-ceiling effects examined data based on quartiles (Cotter et al. 2001) as the effect is about the top portion of the hierarchy.”

“Cotter et al. (2001) use a similar approach in evaluating the “glass ceiling effect,” which exists when gender or racial difference cannot be explained by other job-relevant characteristics of the employee.”

“The second and more commonly used interpretation does not assume progressively greater disadvantage but simply assumes that the cumulative disadvantage of blocked opportunities (no matter where they occur) causes women’s underrepresentation in higher ranks (Cotter et al. 2002; Ferree and Purkayastha 2000; Wright and B…”

“Research shows that occupations are highly segregated by gender (Bielby and Baron 1986; Cotter et al. 2001; England 1981; Jacobs 1989).”

“Data supporting the existence of this notion come from all professions, including, but not limited to, business, (24), law (72), politics (69), and academia (34).”

“With a large body of evidence for its pervasiveness in offline [14] and online [5, 34] networks, the glass ceiling effect captures such inequality due to historical prejudices in top-ranked individuals of a population.”

““A ceiling implies that some upward movement has been made in the past but that later in one’s career, more severe discrimination sets in to block further progress” (Cotter et al. 2001, 660–61).”

“Our findings not only add a perspective of constraint to the very agentic idea of career self-management (Z. King, 2004) but they also reveal a moral dimension to the unseen barriers which hinder women’s career progression described by metaphors such as the glass ceiling (Cotter et al., 2001).”

“…there is strong evidence to support the presence of a glass ceiling in the United States, whether conceived as a barrier women face relative to men (Cotter et al. 2001; Huffman 2004; Jacobs 1992; Morrison and Glinow 1990; Reskin and McBrier 2000) or as barrier minorities and women confront…”

“Our observations also reinforce previous findings related to gender in Twitter [30], suggesting the existing of the so called ’glass ceiling effect’, which posits that females face an invisible barrier at the highest levels of an organization [10].”

“In addition, audit and correspondence studies typically focus on entry-level jobs, yet gender discrimination arguably increases with job hierarchy (Cotter et al., 2001).”

“The concept of a glass ceiling, or an invisible barrier preventing women from gaining influence, high pay and occupational advancement, has enabled scholars to name and locate systematic workplace inequalities (Alessio and Andrzejewski, 2000; Cotter and Hermsen, 2001; Maume, 1999).”

“Although coined more than thirty years ago, the metaphor has retained its currency in the face of women’s enduring relative absence in high positions in corporations (Cotter et al. 2001; Glass and Cook 2016; Tinsley et al. 2017; Yap and Konrad 2009).”

“At many levels, policy has been developed to facilitate the recruitment of women into new fields, to assist those trapped under the glass ceiling to advance, and to reduce the gender wage gap; these appear to have brought mixed success (Cotter et al. 2001; Drolet 2001).”

“The dominant discourse now conceptualizes diversity broadly—inclusive of protected classes, but also of categories such as work style, organizational position, and personality (Edelman, Fuller & Mara-Drita, 2001; Michaels, 2006). Linnehan and Konrad (1999) offer a convincing argument that by “diluting diversity” in th…”