High Guanine and Cytosine Content Increases mRNA Levels in Mammalian Cells
Open accessAbstract
Mammalian genes are highly heterogeneous with respect to their nucleotide composition, but the functional consequences of this heterogeneity are not clear. In the previous studies, weak positive or negative correlations have been found between the silent-site guanine and cytosine (GC) content and expression of mammalian genes. However, previous studies disregarded differences in the genomic context of genes, which could potentially obscure any correlation between GC content and expression. In the present work, we directly compared the expression of GC-rich and GC-poor genes placed in the context of identical promoters and UTR sequences. We performed transient and stable transfections of mammalian cells with GC-rich and GC-poor versions of Hsp70, green fluorescent protein, and IL2 genes. The GC-rich genes were expressed several-fold to over a 100-fold more efficiently than their GC-poor counterparts. This effect was not due to different translation rates of GC-rich and GC-poor mRNA. On the contrary, the efficient expression of GC-rich genes resulted from their increased steady-state mRNA levels. mRNA degradation rates were not correlated with GC content, suggesting that efficient transcription or mRNA processing is responsible for the high expression of GC-rich genes. We conclude that silent-site GC content correlates with gene expression efficiency in mammalian cells.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
A higher GC sequence translates 100-fold higher than a low GC sequence.
“Although high GC-content may cause problems for mRNA secondary structure, the higher GC sequence translates 100-fold higher than a low GC sequence (Kudla et al. 2006).”
From Modifications of mRNA vaccine structural elements for improving mRNA stability and translation efficiency (2022) · cites this paper as Kudla et al. 2006
The Results (page unavailable) attribute higher protein output from GC-rich GFP to higher mRNA levels, not a higher translation rate. The Discussion likewise says codon optimization increased GFP mRNA levels rather than its translation rate. The claimed 100-fold increase in translation is therefore contrary to the paper's finding. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredOptimization of mRNA secondary structure and stability can be achieved by increasing the GC content of the coding sequence.
“Optimization of mRNA secondary structure244,245 and stability can be achieved by increasing the GC content of the coding sequence.246–248”
From Advances in COVID-19 mRNA vaccine development (2022) · cites this paper as [248]
The poly(A) tail is important for mRNA stability and translation success.
“The poly(A) tail is important for mRNA stability and translation success (Kudla et al. 2006).”
From Modifications of mRNA vaccine structural elements for improving mRNA stability and translation efficiency (2022) · cites this paper as Kudla et al. 2006
Codon composition influences translation efficiency.
“Codon composition is known to influence translation efficiency.”
From Modifications of mRNA vaccine structural elements for improving mRNA stability and translation efficiency (2022) · cites this paper as Kudla et al. 2006
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Initial sequencing and comparative analysis of the mouse genome
Mouse Genome Sequencing Consortium (2002) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature01262 · Cited by 7,187 · see citing works
Interleukin-2: Inception, Impact, and Implications
Smith, K. A. (1988) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.3131876 · Cited by 2,166 · see citing works
Bennetzen, J. L., & Hall, B. D. (1982) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1016/s0021-9258(19)81068-2 · Cited by 1,584 · see citing works
Codon usage tabulated from international DNA sequence databases: status for the year 2000
Nakamura, Y. (2000) · Nucleic Acids Research · doi:10.1093/nar/28.1.292 · Cited by 1,259 · see citing works
Codon usage in bacteria: correlation with gene expressivity.
Gouy, M., & Gautier, C. (1982) · Nucleic Acids Research · doi:10.1093/nar/10.22.7055 · Cited by 1,182 · see citing works
Integrating mRNA Processing with Transcription
Proudfoot, N. J., Furger, A., & Dye, M. J. (2002) · Cell · doi:10.1016/s0092-8674(02)00617-7 · Cited by 1,084 · see citing works
The mosaic genome of warm-blooded vertebrates
Bernardi, G., Olofsson, B., Filipski, J., Zerial, M., Salinas, J., Cuny, G., Meunier-Rotival, M., & Rodier, F. (1985) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.4001930 · Cited by 875 · see citing works
Hearing silence: non-neutral evolution at synonymous sites in mammals
Chamary, J., Parmley, J. L., & Hurst, L. D. (2006) · Nature Reviews Genetics · doi:10.1038/nrg1770 · Cited by 834 · see citing works
Duret, L., & Mouchiroud, D. (1999) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.96.8.4482 · Cited by 808 · see citing works
The cap-to-tail guide to mRNA turnover
Wilusz, C. J., Wormington, M., & Peltz, S. W. (2001) · Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology · doi:10.1038/35067025 · Cited by 757 · see citing works
Removal of poly(A) and consequent degradation of c-fos mRNA facilitated by 3′ AU-rich sequences
Wilson, T., & Treisman, R. (1988) · Nature · doi:10.1038/336396a0 · Cited by 685 · see citing works
A "humanized" green fluorescent protein cDNA adapted for high-level expression in mammalian cells
Zolotukhin, S., Potter, M., Hauswirth, W. W., Guy, J., & Muzyczka, N. (1996) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.70.7.4646-4654.1996 · Cited by 609 · see citing works
Ikemura, T. (1982) · Journal of Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/0022-2836(82)90250-9 · Cited by 605 · see citing works
"Silent" sites in Drosophila genes are not neutral: evidence of selection among synonymous codons.
Shields, D. C., Sharp, P. M., Higgins, D. G., & Wright, F. (1988) · Molecular Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040525 · Cited by 533 · see citing works
Codon usage limitation in the expression of HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein
Haas, J., Park, E.-C., & Seed, B. (1996) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/s0960-9822(02)00482-7 · Cited by 531 · see citing works
Duret, L., & Mouchiroud, D. (2000) · Molecular Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026239 · Cited by 505 · see citing works
Evolution of synonymous codon usage in metazoans
Duret, L. (2002) · Current Opinion in Genetics & Development · doi:10.1016/s0959-437x(02)00353-2 · Cited by 505 · see citing works
Z-DNA: the long road to biological function
Rich, A., & Zhang, S.-G. (2003) · Nature reviews genetics · doi:10.1038/nrg1115 · Cited by 500 · see citing works
Transcriptional disruption by the L1 retrotransposon and implications for mammalian transcriptomes
Han, J. S., Szak, S. T., & Boeke, J. D. (2004) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature02536 · Cited by 484 · see citing works
Eyre‐Walker, A., & Hurst, L. D. (2001) · Nature Reviews Genetics · doi:10.1038/35080577 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
Structure of a Transcribing T7 RNA Polymerase Initiation Complex
Cheetham, G. M. T., & Steitz, A. T. A. (1999) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.286.5448.2305 · Cited by 369 · see citing works
Versteeg, R., van Schaik, B. D. C., van Batenburg, M. F., Roos, M., Monajemi, R., Caron, H. N., Bussemaker, H. J., & van Kampen, A. H. C. (2003) · Genome Research · doi:10.1101/gr.1649303 · Cited by 351 · see citing works
André, S., Seed, B., Eberle, J., Schraut, W., Bültmann, A., & Haas, J. (1998) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.72.2.1497-1503.1998 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Mitchell, P., & Tollervey, D. W. (2000) · Current Opinion in Genetics & Development · doi:10.1016/s0959-437x(00)00063-0 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
The Signature of Selection Mediated by Expression on Human GenesPreprint
Urrutia, A. O., & Hurst, L. D. (2003) · Genome Research · doi:10.1101/gr.641103 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Zhou, J., Liu, W. J., Peng, S. W., Sun, X. Y., & Frazer, I. H. (1999) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.73.6.4972-4982.1999 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Synonymous mutations in CFTR exon 12 affect splicing and are not neutral in evolution
Pagani, F., Raponi, M., & Baralle, F. E. (2005) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0502288102 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
DNA helix: the importance of being GC-rich
Vinogradov, A. E. (2003) · Nucleic Acids Research · doi:10.1093/nar/gkg296 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
Tissue-specific codon usage and the expression of human genes
Plotkin, J. B., Robins, H. S., & Levine, A. J. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0404957101 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Kotsopoulou, E., Kim, V. N., Kingsman, A. J., Kingsman, S. M., & Mitrophanous, K. A. (2000) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.74.10.4839-4852.2000 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Mammalian gene evolution: Nucleotide sequence divergence between mouse and rat
Wolfe, K. H., & Sharp, P. M. (1993) · Journal of Molecular Evolution · doi:10.1007/bf00178874 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Diversity in G+C content at the third position of codons in vertebrate genes and its cause
Aota, S., & Ikemura, T. (1986) · Nucleic Acids Research · doi:10.1093/nar/14.16.6345 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Eyre‐Walker, A. (1999) · Genetics · doi:10.1093/genetics/152.2.675 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Deml, L., Bojak, A., Steck, S., et al. (2001) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.75.22.10991-11001.2001 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Gene-based vaccines and immunotherapeutics
Liu, M., Acres, B., Balloul, J., Bizouarne, N., Paul, S., Slos, P., & Squiban, P. J. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0404845101 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
A highly active synthetic mammalian retrotransposon
Han, J. S., & Boeke, J. D. (2004) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature02535 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Nguyen, K., Llano, M., Akari, H., et al. (2004) · Virology · doi:10.1016/j.virol.2003.11.021 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Codon optimization for high-level expression of human erythropoietin (EPO) in mammalian cells
Kim, C. H., Oh, Y., & Lee, T.-H. (1997) · Gene · doi:10.1016/s0378-1119(97)00384-3 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
How sequence defines structure: A crystallographic map of DNA structure and conformation
Hays, F. A., Teegarden, A. T., Jones, Z. J. R., et al. (2005) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0409455102 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Selection on Human Genes as Revealed by Comparisons to Chimpanzee cDNAPreprint
Hellmann, I., Zöllner, S., Enard, W., Ebersberger, I., Nickel, B., & Pääbo, S. (2003) · Genome Research · doi:10.1101/gr.944903 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
A unification of mosaic structures in the human genome
Lercher, M. J., Urrutia, A. O., Pavlı́ček, A., et al. (2003) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddg251 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Mammalian Mutation Pressure, Synonymous Codon Choice, and mRNA Degradation
Duan, J., & Antezana, M. A. (2003) · Journal of Molecular Evolution · doi:10.1007/s00239-003-2519-1 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Isochores and tissue-specificity
Vinogradov, A. E. (2003) · Nucleic Acids Research · doi:10.1093/nar/gkg699 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Isochores result from mutation not selection
Francino, M. P., & Ochman, H. (1999) · Nature · doi:10.1038/21804 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Determinants of CpG Islands: Expression in Early Embryo and Isochore StructurePreprint
Ponger, L., Duret, L., & Mouchiroud, D. (2001) · Genome Research · doi:10.1101/gr.174501 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Levy, J. P., Muldoon, R. R., Zolotukhin, S., et al. (1996) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/nbt0596-610 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Chamary, J., & Hurst, L. D. (2004) · Molecular Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/molbev/msh087 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Palangat, M., & Landick, R. C. (2001) · Journal of Molecular Biology · doi:10.1006/jmbi.2001.4842 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Nagata, T., Uchijima, M., Yoshida, A., Kawashima, M., & Koide, Y. (1999) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1006/bbrc.1999.1050 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Synonymous Codon Bias Is Not Caused by Mutation Bias in G+C-Rich Genes in Humans
Smith, N. G. C., & Eyre‐Walker, A. (2001) · Molecular Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003899 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Sémon, M., Mouchiroud, D., & Duret, L. (2004) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddi038 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Evidence for purifying selection acting on silent sites in BRCA1
Hurst, L. D., & Pál, C. (2001) · Trends in Genetics · doi:10.1016/s0168-9525(00)02173-9 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Tan, W., Felber, B. K., Zolotukhin, A. S., Pavlakis, G. N., & Schwartz, S. (1995) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.69.9.5607-5620.1995 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Hoeben, R. C., Fallaux, F. J., Cramer, S., et al. (1995) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood.v85.9.2447.bloodjournal8592447 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Furth, P. A., & Baker, C. C. (1991) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.65.11.5806-5812.1991 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
No Evidence for Tissue-Specific Adaptation of Synonymous Codon Usage in Humans
Sémon, M., Lobry, J. R., & Duret, L. (2005) · Molecular Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/molbev/msj053 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Graf, M., Bojak, A., Deml, L., Bieler, K., Wolf, H. J., & Wagner, R. (2000) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.74.22.10822-10826.2000 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Comparative evolutionary rates of introns and exons in murine rodents
Hughes, A. L., & Yeager, M. (1997) · Journal of Molecular Evolution · doi:10.1007/pl00006211 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Bustamante, C. D., Nielsen, R., & Hartl, D. L. (2002) · Molecular Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003975 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Chamary, J.-V., & Hurst, L. D. (2005) · Trends in Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.tig.2005.03.001 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
mRNA Instability Elements in the Human Papillomavirus Type 16 L2 Coding Region
Sokolowski, M., Tan, W., Jellne, M., & Schwartz, S. (1998) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.72.2.1504-1515.1998 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Gene Conversion and GC-Content Evolution in Mammalian Hsp70
Kudla, G. (2004) · Molecular Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/molbev/msh146 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citationEvidence for codon bias selection at the pre-mRNA level in eukaryotes
Willie, E., & Majewski, J. (2004) · Trends in Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.tig.2004.08.014 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Konu, Ö., & Li, M. D. (2002) · Journal of Molecular Evolution · doi:10.1007/s00239-001-0015-z · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Identification of Sequences in c- myc mRNA That Regulate Its Steady-State Levels
Yeilding, N. M., Rehman, M. T., & Lee, W. M. F. (1996) · Molecular and Cellular Biology · doi:10.1128/mcb.16.7.3511 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Keene, R. G., Mueller, A., Robert, L., et al. (1999) · Nucleic Acids Research · doi:10.1093/nar/27.15.3173 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Cancer immunotherapy using cells modified with cytokine genes.
Kowalczyk, D. W., Wysocki, P. J., & Mackiewicz, A. A. (2003) · Acta Biochimica Polonica · doi:10.18388/abp.2003_3655 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
The intrinsic structure and stability of out-of-alternation base pairs in Z-DNA
Eichman, B. F., Schroth, G. P., Basham, B., et al. (1999) · Nucleic Acids Research · doi:10.1093/nar/27.2.543 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Jl, V., Carillo, S., Vié, A., et al. (1995) · PubMed · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Assay for Intracellular Calcium Using a Codon-Optimized Aequorin
Vernon, W., & Printen, J. A. (2002) · BioTechniques · doi:10.2144/02334bm02 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Reddy, T. R., Kraus, G., Suhasini, M., et al. (1995) · Journal of Virology · doi:10.1128/jvi.69.8.5167-5170.1995 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Bakkouri, K. E., Servais, C., Clément, N., Cheong, S. C., Franssen, J.-D., Velu, T. J., & Brandenburger, A. (2004) · The Journal of Gene Medicine · doi:10.1002/jgm.653 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Kudla G (2005) Evolution and function of nucleotide usage in mammalian Hsp70-family genes [thesis]. Warsaw: Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics of the Polish Academy of Sciences. 90 p.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
mRNA vaccines — a new era in vaccinology
Pardi, N., Hogan, M. J., Porter, F. W., & Weissman, D. (2018) · Nature Reviews Drug Discovery · doi:10.1038/nrd.2017.243 · Cited by 4,667 · see citing works
An RNA gene expressed during cortical development evolved rapidly in humans
Pollard, K. S., Salama, S. R., Lambert, N., Lambot, M.-A., Coppens, S., Pedersen, J. S., Katzman, S., King, B., Onodera, C., Siepel, A., et al. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature05113 · Cited by 1,005 · see citing works
Advances in COVID-19 mRNA vaccine development
Fang, E., Liu, X., Li, M., Zhang, Z., Song, L., Zhu, B., Wu, X., Liu, J., Zhao, D., & Li, Y. (2022) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-022-00950-y · Cited by 601 · see citing works
New Vaccine Technologies to Combat Outbreak Situations
Rauch, S., Jasny, E., Schmidt, K. E., & Petsch, B. (2018) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.01963 · Cited by 579 · see citing works
The promise of mRNA vaccines: a biotech and industrial perspective
Jackson, N. A. C., Kester, K. E., Casimiro, D., Gurunathan, S., & DeRosa, F. (2020) · npj Vaccines · doi:10.1038/s41541-020-0159-8 · Cited by 498 · see citing works
“For example, optimization of guanine and cytosine (GC) content can have a significant impact, 23 and has been well established with DNA vaccines.”
BackgroundThree decades of messenger RNA vaccine development
Verbeke, R., Lentacker, I., De Smedt, S. C., & Dewitte, H. (2019) · Nano Today · doi:10.1016/j.nantod.2019.100766 · Cited by 342 · see citing works
Gu, W., Zhou, T., & Wilke, C. O. (2010) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000664 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
Principles for designing an optimal mRNA lipid nanoparticle vaccine
Kon, E., Elia, U., & Peer, D. (2022) · Current Opinion in Biotechnology · doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2021.09.016 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Vaidyanathan, S., Azizian, K. T., Haque, A. K. M. A., Henderson, J. M., Hendel, A., Shore, S., Antony, J. S., Hogrefe, R. I., Kormann, M. S. D., Porteus, M. H., et al. (2018) · Molecular Therapy Nucleic Acids · doi:10.1016/j.omtn.2018.06.010 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Kim, S. C., Sekhon, S. S., Shin, W.-R., Ahn, G., Cho, B.-K., Ahn, J.-Y., & Kim, Y.-H. (2022) · Molecular & Cellular Toxicology · doi:10.1007/s13273-021-00171-4 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
A code within the genetic code: codon usage regulates co-translational protein folding
Liu, Y. (2020) · Cell Communication and Signaling · doi:10.1186/s12964-020-00642-6 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Konkle, B. A., Walsh, C. E., Escobar, M. A., Josephson, N. C., Young, G., von Drygalski, A., McPhee, S. W. J., Samulski, R. J., Bilic, I., de la Rosa, M., et al. (2021) · Blood · doi:10.1182/blood.2019004625 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Minnaert, A.-K., Vanluchene, H., Verbeke, R., Lentacker, I., De Smedt, S. C., Raemdonck, K., Sanders, N. N., & Remaut, K. (2021) · Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.addr.2021.113900 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Wu, Z., Sun, J., Zhang, T., Yin, C., Yin, F., Van Dyke, T., Samulski, R. J., & Monahan, P. E. (2008) · Molecular Therapy · doi:10.1038/sj.mt.6300355 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
How do synonymous mutations affect fitness?
Parmley, J. L., & Hurst, L. D. (2007) · BioEssays · doi:10.1002/bies.20592 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Nanomedicine-Based Approaches for mRNA Delivery
Uchida, S., Perche, F., Pichon, C., & Cabral, H. (2020) · Molecular Pharmaceutics · doi:10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.0c00618 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Dreszer, T. R., Wall, G. D., Haussler, D., & Pollard, K. S. (2007) · Genome Research · doi:10.1101/gr.6395807 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Nascent RNA structure modulates the transcriptional dynamics of RNA polymerases
Zamft, B., Bintu, L., Ishibashi, T., & Bustamante, C. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1205063109 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Alexaki, A., Hettiarachchi, G. K., Athey, J. C., Katneni, U. K., Simhadri, V., Hamasaki-Katagiri, N., Nanavaty, P., Lin, B., Takeda, K., Freedberg, D., et al. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-51984-2 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Nicolet, B. P., & Wolkers, M. C. (2022) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0276294 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
The paradigm shift in treatment from Covid-19 to oncology with mRNA vaccines
Wei, J., & Hui, A.-M. (2022) · Cancer Treatment Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.ctrv.2022.102405 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
- Authors
- Kudla, G., Lipinski, L., Caffin, F., Helwak, A., & Zylicz, M.
- Affiliations
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (PL)
- Corresponding author
- Kudla, Grzegorz
- Venue
- PLoS Biology
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2006-05-23
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- e180
- ISSN
- 1544-9173 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-7885
- PMC
- PMC1463026
- OpenAlex
- W2087439897
- Cited by
- 476
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 4.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS Biology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › RNA and protein synthesis mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Genomics and Chromatin Dynamics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Chromosomal and Genetic Variations
- Keywords
- GC content, nucleotide composition, gene expression, mRNA levels, HSP70, green fluorescent protein, interleukin-2, mRNA stability, transcription efficiency, mRNA processing, promoter context, untranslated regions
- MeSH terms
- Base Composition, Cytosine, Gene Expression Regulation, Guanine, HeLa Cells, Humans, Interleukin-2, Promoter Regions, Genetic, RNA Processing, Post-Transcriptional, RNA, Messenger, Transcription, Genetic, HSP70 Heat-Shock Proteins, 3' Untranslated Regions, GC Rich Sequence, Green Fluorescent Proteins
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
