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Serum Iron Levels and the Risk of Parkinson Disease: A Mendelian Randomization Study
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Although levels of iron are known to be increased in the brains of patients with Parkinson disease (PD), epidemiological evidence on a possible effect of iron blood levels on PD risk is inconclusive, with effects reported in opposite directions. Epidemiological studies suffer from problems of confounding and reverse causation, and mendelian randomization (MR) represents an alternative approach to provide unconfounded estimates of the effects of biomarkers on disease. We performed a MR study where genes known to modify iron levels were used as instruments to estimate the effect of iron on PD risk, based on estimates of the genetic effects on both iron and PD obtained from the largest sample meta-analyzed to date. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We used as instrumental variables three genetic variants influencing iron levels, HFE rs1800562, HFE rs1799945, and TMPRSS6 rs855791. Estimates of their effect on serum iron were based on a recent genome-wide meta-analysis of 21,567 individuals, while estimates of their effect on PD risk were obtained through meta-analysis of genome-wide and candidate gene studies with 20,809 PD cases and 88,892 controls. Separate MR estimates of the effect of iron on PD were obtained for each variant and pooled by meta-analysis. We investigated heterogeneity across the three estimates as an indication of possible pleiotropy and found no evidence of it. The combined MR estimate showed a statistically significant protective effect of iron, with a relative risk reduction for PD of 3% (95% CI 1%-6%; p = 0.001) per 10 µg/dl increase in serum iron. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that increased iron levels are causally associated with a decreased risk of developing PD. Further studies are needed to understand the pathophysiological mechanism of action of serum iron on PD risk before recommendations can be made.
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“The previously described MR effects of iron status on risk of Parkinson’s disease and coronary artery disease (coronary atherosclerosis) were not statistically significant after correcting for multiple testing in our current analysis, although the directions of effect were consistent with previous work (S5 Table) [8,9].”
From Associations of genetically determined iron status across the phenome: A mendelian randomization study (2019) · cites this paper as [9]
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“…may be surprising in view of the previously proposed negative correlation between serum iron level and the risk of PD (Chen et al. 2024; Pichler et al. 2013), and the report of lower serum iron levels in patients with PD compared with age-and sex-matched controls (Jiménez-Jiménez et…”
Iron Status May Not Affect Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: A Mendelian Randomization Study
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“Patients in the late stage of PD have a lower serum iron and ferritin than control (14-17).”
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“In contrast, a report recently suggested that increased Fe levels are causally associated with decreased risk of developing Parkinson’s disease (Pichler et al. 2013).”
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Screening of key immune-related gene in Parkinson's disease based on WGCNA and machine learning.
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“…， CD44 、 ITGAM 与免疫系统激活相关 [34-35] 。研究 [32] 通过富集分析发 现：在生物学功能方面， ANK1 主要与氧转运、中幼 粒细胞发育、气体转运、红细胞分化等相关；在细 胞组成方面，与血红蛋白复合物、触珠蛋白 - 血红蛋 白复合物、皮层细胞骨架等相关；在分子功能方面， ANK1 与氧转运蛋白活性、结合珠蛋白、氧结合、铁 离子结合等有关。本研究结果与上述研究结果一致。 与血红蛋白和铁稳态有关的基因在 ANK1 低表达组中 下调 [36-37] ，而血红蛋白水平与帕金森病呈负相关 [38-39] ， 血清铁的增加可能与帕金森病风险降低有关 [16, 40-41]”
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“We excluded the SNPs that had F statistics lower than 10 according to standard practice.((26)) All MR associations between SBP, DBP, PP, and primary outcomes were scaled to 10 mm Hg”
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BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Pichler, I., Del Greco M., F., Gögele, M., Lill, C. M., Bertram, L., Do, C. B., Eriksson, N., Foroud, T., Myers, R. H., PD GWAS Consortium, Nalls, M., Keller, M. F., International Parkinson's Disease Genomics Consortium, Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium 2, Benyamin, B., Whitfield, J. B., Genetics of Iron Status Consortium, Pramstaller, P. P., Hicks, A. A., Thompson, J. R., & Minelli, C.
- Affiliations
- Eurac Research (IT)
- Imperial College London (GB)
- Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (DE)
- Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics (DE)
- 23andMe (United States) (US)
- Indiana University School of Medicine (US)
- Boston University (US)
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- The University of Queensland (AU)
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute (AU)
- Ospedale di Bolzano (IT)
- University of Leicester (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Pichler, Irene
- Minelli, Cosetta
- ORCID
- Venue
- PLoS Medicine
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2013-06-04
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- e1001462
- ISSN
- 1549-1277 (ISSN-L)
- 1549-1676
- PMC
- PMC3672214
- OpenAlex
- W2169823945
- Cited by
- 173
- References
- 81
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 11.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2013-06-10)
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Amsterdam UMC (VU Amsterdam) - Institutional Repository (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Archive ouverte UNIGE (University of Geneva) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- ArTS Archivio della ricerca di Trieste (University of Trieste https://www.units.it/) (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (submittedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Leicester Research Archive (University of Leicester) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Site cant be reached (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Pure Amsterdam UMC (submittedVersion)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Open Research (University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Archive ouverte UNIGE (University of Geneva) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Defense (W81XWH, Z01-AG000949-02, Z01-ES101986, W81XWH0920128)
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (W81XWH-09-2-0128, Z01-ES101986, RR024992, Z01‐AG000949‐02)
- Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson's Research (Z01-ES101986, W81XWH-09-2-0128, Z01-AG000949-02)
- Susan G. Komen for the Cure
- American Association for the Advancement of Science
- Biogen
- American Parkinson Disease Association
- Cure Alzheimer's Fund
- University of Rochester
- University of Dundee
- Queen Mary University of London
- South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust
- Prize4Life
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
- National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression
- Wellcome Trust (WT089698, 083948/Z/07/Z, WTCCC2, 090532, WTCCC1, NS057105, 083948, WT089698/Z/09/Z)
- University Hospitals Birmingham NHS Foundation Trust
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (NF-SI-0507-10376)
- Parkinson's UK (F-1202, G0909, J-0901, J‐0804)
- Imperial College London
- King's College London
- University College London
- University of Oxford
- European Commission (230596)
- Cardiff University
- University of Aberdeen
- Trinity College Dublin
- Agence Nationale de la Recherche
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale
- Universiteit Leiden
- Radboud Universiteit
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
- Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (01GR0468, 01GS08134, 01EW0908)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
- Leids Universitair Medisch Centrum
- Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen
- Tartu Ülikool
- Hersenstichting
- Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust
- Provincia autonoma di Bolzano - Alto Adige
- National Institutes of Health (1z01es101986-03, 5r44hg006981-03, W81XWH, UL1TR000448, W81XWH-09-2-0128, Z01‐AG000949‐02, Z01-ES101986, RR024992, NS057105, Z01-AG000949)
- EMD Serono
- Fidelity Biosciences
- Medical Research Council (MR/K01417X/1, G0700943, WT089698)
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, University of Cambridge
- Erasmus Universitair Medisch Centrum Rotterdam
- Diamantina Institute, University of Queensland
- National Institute on Aging (Z01‐ES101986, W81XWH-09-2-0128, K24AG000949, Z01AG000949)
- National Human Genome Research Institute (R44-HG006981)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (P30NS057105, NS057105, R01NS076843, P50NS071674)
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES 101986)
- National Center for Research Resources (RR-024992, UL1RR024992)
- NIH Clinical Center
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Parkinson's Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Hematology › Iron Metabolism and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Keywords
- Parkinson's disease, serum iron, iron levels, disease risk, HFE gene, TMPRSS6, genetic instruments, causal effects, protective effect, biomarkers
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Iron, Parkinson Disease, Risk Factors, Genetic Predisposition to Disease, Genetic Association Studies, Mendelian Randomization Analysis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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